Unit+VIIIB+-+Emotions,+Stress,+&Health

Unit VIIIB - Emotions, Stress, &Health

__Notes – (p. 366-371): __
__**Theories of Emotion: **__
 * Motivated behavior is often driven by powerful emotions that color and sometimes disrupt our lives.
 * Emotions are comprised of of (1)physiological arousal (heart pounding), (2) expressive behaviors (quickened pace), and (3) consciously experienced thoughts (is this a kidnapping?) and feelings (a sense of fear, and later joy)
 * There are two controversies over the interplay of our physiology, expressions, and experience in emotions:
 * o Does your physiological arousal precede or follow your emotional experience?
 * o Does cognition always precede emotion?
 * Common sense tells most of us that we cry because we are sad, lash out because we are angry, tremble because we are afraid.
 * o First comes conscious awareness, then the physiological trimmings.
 * § William James and Carl Lange: your feeling of fear is followed by your body’s response—the **James-Lange Theory**: our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.
 * o Walter cannon believed this to be implausible. He thought that the body’s responses were not distinct enough to evoke the different emotions.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Along with Philip Bard, concluded that our physiological arousal and our emotional experience occur simultaneously: The emotion-triggering stimulus is routed simultaneously to the brain’s cortex, causing the subjective awareness of emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, causing the body’s arousal.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cannon- Bard Theory maintains that your heart begins pounding //as// you experience fear; one does not cause the other. Our physiological response and experienced emotion are separate.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer (1962) proposed a third theory: that our physiology and our cognitions—perceptions, memories, and interpretations—together create emotion.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Two-factor theory: emotions consist of physical arousal and cognitive label.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Presumed that experience of emotion stems from our awareness of our body’s arousal.

__**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Embodied Emotion: **__ __**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Physiological Similarities Among Specific Emotions: **__ __**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Physiological Differences among Specific Emotions: **__
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In a crisis, your <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">autonomic nervous system (ANS) that mobilizes your body for action and calms it when the crisis passes <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">. Without any conscious effort, your body’s response to danger is coordinated and adaptive.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The sympathetic division of the ANS directs adrenal glands to release the stress hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine(noradrenaline)
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Your liver pours extra sugar into your bloodstream. To help burn the sugar, your respiration increases to supply needed oxygen. Your heart rate and blood pressure increase. Your digestion slows, diverting blood from your internal organs to your muscles. With blood sugar driven into the large muscles,running becomes easier. Your pupils dilate, letting in more light. To cool your stirred-up body, you perspire. If wounded, your blood would clot more quickly.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">After the crisis, the parasympathetic division comes into play and clams the body.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">neural centers inhibit further release of stress hormones, but those already in your bloodstream will linger awhile, so arousal diminishes gradually.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In many situations, arousal is adaptive.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Too little arousal (like sleep) can be disruptive, and prolonged high arousal can tax the body.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Discerning physiological differences among fear, anger, and sexual arousal is difficult.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Different emotions do not have sharply distinct biological signatures.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Researchers have found some real, though subtle, physiological distinctions among the emotions.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the finger temperatures and hormone secretions that accompany fear and rage do sometimes differ
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Though fear and joy can prompt similar increased heart rate, they stimulate different facial muscles.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During fear, brow muscles tense.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During joy, muscles in the cheeks and under the eyes pull into a smile
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The amygdala is the emotional control center in the brain’s limbic system.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Brain scans and EEG recordings show that emotions also activate different areas of the brain’s cortex, with some tendency for negative emotions to be linked to the right hemisphere and positive emotions to the left.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Positive moods tend to trigger more left frontal lobe activity.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the more a person’s baseline frontal lobe activity tilts left, or is made to tilt left by perceptual activity, the more upbeat the person typically is.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Brain injury can also tilt activity to the left.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The left frontal lobe’s rich supply of dopamine receptors may help explain why a peppy left hemisphere predicts a perky personality. A neural pathway that increases dopamine levels runs from the frontal lobes to a nearby cluster of neurons, the **nucleus accumbens**.

**__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Notes (p. 371-377): __**
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cognition and Emotion: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">What is the connection between what we think and how we feel? Can we experience emotion apart from thinking, or do we become what we think?
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cognition Can Define Emotion: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sometimes our arousal response to one event spills over into our response to the next event.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Known as the **spillover effect**
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To find out whether this //spillover effect// exists, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer (1962) aroused college men with injections of the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline).
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Schachter and Singer’s volunteers felt little emotion—because they attributed their arousal to the drug.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When told that the injection would produce no effects, another group “caught” the apparent emotion of the person they were with, becoming happy if the accomplice is acting euphoric, and testy if the accomplice is acting irritated.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory predicts: arousal + label = emotion.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Emotional arousal may not be as undifferentiated as Schachter and Singer believed, but arousal from emotions as diverse as anger, fear, and sexual excitement can indeed spill from one emotion to another . __The point to remember//:// Arousal fuels emotion;__ __cognition channels it.__


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cognition Does not Always Precede Emotion: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Robert Zajonc (1980, 1984a) has contended that we actually have many emotional reactions apart from, or even before, our interpretations of a situation.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A subliminally flashed stimulus, such as a smiling or angry face or a disgusting scene, can also prime a mood or specific emotion and lead us to feel better or worse about a follow-up stimulus.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In one set of experiments, thirsty people were given a fruit-flavored drink after viewing a subliminally flashed (thus unperceived) face. Those exposed to a happy face drank about 50 percent more than those exposed to a neutral face. Those flashed an angry face drank substantially less.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Neuroscience research helps us understand these surprising findings.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Like speedy reflexes that operate apart from the brain’s thinking cortex, some emotions take the “low road,” as Joseph LeDoux (2002) calls it, via neural pathways that bypass the cortex (which offers the alternative “high road” pathway).
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One low-road pathway runs from the eye or ear via the thalamus to the amygdala, bypassing the cortex.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This shortcut enables our greased-lightning emotional response before our intellect intervenes. So speedy is the amygdala reaction that we may be unaware of what’s transpired.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The amygdala sends more neural projections up to the cortex than it receives back. This makes it easier for our feelings to hijack our thinking than for our thinking to rule our feelings, noted LeDoux and Jorge Armony.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Richard Lazarus (1991, 1998) conceded that our brains process and react to vast amounts of information without our conscious awareness, and he willingly granted that some emotional responses do not require conscious thinking.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Much of our emotional life operates via the automatic, effortless, speedy low road, but even instantaneously felt emotions require some sort of **cognitive appraisal**of the situation.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The appraisal may be effortless and we may not be conscious of it, but it is still a mental function. To know whether something is good or bad, the brain must have some idea of what it is
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Emotions arise when we appraise an event as beneficial or harmful to our well-being, whether we truly know it is or not.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Some emotional responses, especially simple likes, dislikes, and fears—involve no conscious thinking.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The emotional brain even influences people’s political decisions, leading many to vote for candidates they automatically like over a candidate expressing positions more like their own.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Like other emotions, our feelings about politics are, as Lazarus, Schachter, and Singer predicted, greatly influenced by our memories, expectations, and interpretations.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Highly emotional people are intense partly because of their interpretations. They may **personalize** events as being somehow directed at them, and they may **generalize** their experiences by blowing single incidents out of proportion

**__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Notes (p.377-384) __**

 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Expressed Emotion: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">There’s a more simple method of deciphering people’s emotions: <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">We read their bodies, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">listen to their tone of voice, and study their faces. People’s expressive behavior reveals their emotion.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Detecting Emotion: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">We can communicate nonverbally as well as verbally.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">With a gaze, an averted glance, or a stare we can communicate intimacy, submission, or dominance.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Among those passionately in love, gazing into each other’s eyes is typically prolonged and mutual.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Joan Kellerman, James Lewis, and James Laird (1989) wondered if intimate gazes would stir such feelings between strangers. To find out, they asked unacquainted male-female pairs to gaze intently for two minutes either at each other’s hands or into each other’s eyes. After separating, the eye gazers reported feeling a tingle of attraction and affection.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Most of us are good enough at reading nonverbal cues to decipher the emotions in an old silent film.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">We are especially good at detecting threats.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Even when hearing emotions conveyed in another language, people most readily detect anger
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Experience can sensitize us to particular emotions, as shown by experiments using a series of facesthat morphed from fear (or sadness) to anger.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Viewing such faces, physically abused children are much quicker than other children to spot the signals of anger.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Shown a face that is 60 percent fear and 40 percent anger, they are as likely to perceive anger as fear.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hard-to-control facial muscles reveal signs of emotions you may be trying to conceal.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ex.: Lifting just the inner part of your eyebrows, which few people do consciously, reveals distress or worry.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One experiment found that a <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">glimpse of a face for even one-tenth of a second was enough for people to judge someone’s trustworthiness <span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When researchers blur faces or hide them in distracting information, people still display remarkable skill at recognizing distinct emotions
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Exposing different facial parts shows the eyes and mouth to be most revealing, with fear and anger read mostly from the eyes, and happiness from the mouth
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Despite our brain’s emotion-detecting skill, we find it difficult to detect deceiving expressions.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">People worldwide believe that one telltale sign of lying is averting one’s gaz e.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In one digest of 206 studies of discerning truth from lies, people were just 54 percent accurate, barely better than a coin toss.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Contrary to claims that some experts can spot lies, the available research indicates that virtually no one beats chance by much
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Some are more sensitive than others to physical cues.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Robert Rosenthal, Judith Hall, and their colleagues (1979) discovered this by showing hundreds of people brief film clips of portions of a person’s emotionally expressive face or body, sometimes accompanied by a garbled voice.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Introverts tend to excel at reading others’ emotions, although extraverts are generally easier to read.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gestures, facial expressions, and tones of voice are all absent in electronic communication.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">E-mail sometimes includes sideways //emoticons//, such as ;-)for a knowing wink and :-( for a frown.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Text messages, e-mail, tweets, and non-video Internet chats and posts otherwise lack nonverbal cues to status, personality, and age.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Judge someone based solely on words.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Easy to misread/ misinterpret texts or e-mails, where the absence of expressive e-motion can make for ambiguous emotion.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lack vocal nuances.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Women’s nonverbal sensitivity to nonverbal cues gives them an edge in spotting lies.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Women’s nonverbal sensitivity helps explain their greater emotional literacy.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Women’s skill at decoding others’ emotions may also contribute to their greater emotional responsiveness in both positive and negative situations.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One exception: Anger strikes most people as a more masculine emotion.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Researchers found that people are quicker to see anger on men’s faces, and also picture an angry man, when asked to picture someone angry. And if a gender-neutral face is made to look angry, most people perceive it as male. If smiling, it’s more likely to be perceived as female.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When surveyed, women are far more likely than men to describe themselves as empathic.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Empathy **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: ability to identify with others and imagine what it must be like to walk in their shoes.
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Women are far more likely to express empathy; they are more likely to cry and report distress when seeing someone in distress.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Culture and Emotional Expression: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The meaning of gestures varies with the culture.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Otto Klineberg (1938) observed that in Chinese literature people clapped their hands to express worry or disappointment, laughed a great “Ho-Ho” to express anger, and stuck out their tongues to show surprise.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The North American “thumbs up” and “A-OK” signs are considered insults in certain other cultures.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Do facial expressions also have different meanings in different cultures? !
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Two investigative teams, one led by Paul Ekman, Wallace Friesen,and others (1975, 1987, 1994), the other by Carroll Izard (1977, 1994)—showed photographs of various facial expressions to people in different parts of the world and asked them to guess the emotion.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A smile’s a smile the world around. The same is true for anger, and to a lesser extent the other basic expressions.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">There is no culture where people frown when they are happy.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Facial expressions do contain some nonverbal accents that provide clues to one’s culture.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">It is not surprising that data from 182 studies show slightly enhanced accuracy when people judge emotions from their own culture.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Children’s facial expressions, even those of blind children who have never seen a face, are also universal.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">People blind from birth spontaneously exhibit the common facial expressions associated with such emotions as joy, sadness, fear, and anger.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Darwin speculated that in prehistoric times, before our ancestors communicated in words, their ability to convey threats, greetings, and submission with facial expressions helped them survive.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This is why all humans express the basic emotions with similar facial expressions.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Smiles, too, are social phenomena as well as emotional reflexes.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">It has been adaptive for us to interpret faces in particular contexts.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">People judge an angry face set in a frightening situation as afraid. They judge a fearful face set in a painful situation as pained.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Although cultures share a universal facial language for basic emotions, they differ in how much emotion they express.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cultures that encourage individuality, as in Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and North America, display mostly visible emotions.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In Chinese culture, which encourages people to adjust to others, personal emotions are less visibly displayed.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Eyes convey emotion in many ways.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In Japan, people typically look down, which displays respect for others.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Canadians typically look up.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cultural differences also exist within nations.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Irish and their Irish-American descendants tend to be more expressive than Scandinavians and their Scandinavian-American descendants.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Like most psychological events, emotion is best understood not only as a biological and cognitive phenomenon, but also as a social-cultural phenomenon.


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Effects of Facial Expressions: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">William James <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">believes that we can control emotions by going “through the outward movements” of any emotion we want to experience. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">“To feel cheerful,” he advised, “sit up cheerfully, look around cheerfully, and act as if cheerfulness were already there.”
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Expressions not only communicate emotion, they also amplify and regulate it.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Darwin, in his 1872 book, //The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals//, contended that “the free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. . . . He who gives way to violent gestures will increase his rage.”
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">People instructed to mold their faces in ways that express other basic emotions also experienced those emotions.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In the absence of competing emotions, this facial feedback effect is subtle yet detectable.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Facial Feedback: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the effect of facial expressions on experienced emotions, as when a facial expression of anger or happiness intensifies feelings of anger or happiness.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Two studies demonstrate facial feedback:
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">(1) <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Tiffany Ito and her colleagues <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">(2006) used the pen-in-the-teeth procedure to induce happiness while people viewed pictures of faces. If they had viewed Black rather than White faces, they later, on an Implicit Attitude Test, exhibited lessened racial bias against Blacks. The good feeling had spread by association.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">(2) Botox injections were used to paralyze the frowning muscles of 10 depressed patients . Two months after the treatment, 9 of the 10 non-frowning patients were no longer depressed.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sara Snodgrass and her associates (1986) observed the **behavior feedback** phenomenon with walking.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One small way to become more empathic is to let your own face mimic another person’s expression.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Acting as another acts helps us feel what another feels.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Blocking people’s natural mimicry, for example, by having them bite a pencil with their teeth, impairs their ability to recognize others’ emotions.

__Activity 1:__ Nonverbal Gestures:

 * __Thumbs Up:__**
 * **Description of behavior**: a common hand gesture achieved by a closed fist held with the thumb extended upward
 * **What meaning do North Americans assign this behavior?:** sign of approval
 * **Would tourists from other countries behave similarily?** No
 * __Phone Call:__**
 * **Description of behavior:** Thumb and pinky outstretched, other fingers tight against palm. Thumb to ear and pinky to mouth as though they were a telephone receiver.
 * **What meaning do North Americans assign this behavior?**: Used to say, "I'll call you," or may be used to request a future telephone conversation or to tell someone of a call.
 * **Would tourists from other countries behave similarily?** Yes
 * __Extending an Apple with Left Hand:__**
 * **Description of behavior**: extending an apple with left hand with arm out
 * **What meaning do North Americans assign this behavior**?: have an apple, do you want some?
 * **Would tourists from other countries behave similarily**? No
 * __Looking Down:__**
 * **Description of behavior:** looking down, turning away
 * **What meaning do North Americans assign this behavior**?: disbelief, lack of confidence in words, shyness, lying
 * **Would tourists from other countries behave similarily**? No, for some cultures, this is a sign of respect.
 * __Shaking head “no” :__**
 * **Description of behavior**: shaking of head
 * **What meaning do North Americans assign this behavior?:** implies “no”
 * **Would tourists from other countries behave similarily?** No
 * __“ok” sign:__**
 * **Description of behavior**: made by connecting the thumb and forefinger in a circle and holding the other fingers straight.
 * **What meaning do North Americans assign this behavior**?: may signal the word //okay//; especially as a diving signal
 * **Would tourists from other countries behave similarily**? No, the same gesture is offensive in parts of southern Europe and South America.

__**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Notes (p. 384-389): **__




 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Experienced Emotion: **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">How many emotions are <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">there?
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Carroll Izard (1977) isolated 10 basic emotions (joy, interest-excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust,contempt, fear, shame, and guilt), most of which are present in infancy.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jessica Tracey and Richard Robins (2004) believe that pride is also a distinct emotion, signaled by a small smile, head slightly tilted back,and an open posture.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Phillip Shaver and his colleagues (1996) believe that love, too, may be a basic emotion.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Izard has argued that other emotions are combinations of these 10, with love, for example, being a mixture of joy and interest-excitement.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The ingredients of emotion include not only physiology and expressive behavior but also our conscious experience.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Many place emphasis on emotional experience along two dimensions:
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">pleasant/positive-versus-unpleasant/negative valence, and **low-versus-high arousal**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">On the valence and arousal dimensions, terrified is more frightened (more unpleasant and aroused) than afraid, enraged is angrier than angry, delighted is happier than happy.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fear: **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fear can be detrimental, tormenting us, prevent us from sleeping, and even preoccupy our thoughts.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">People can literally be scared to death.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fear can also be contagious.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fear is adaptive; it serves as an alarm system that prepares our bodies to flee from danger.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fear of real or imagined enemies binds people together as families, tribes, and nations.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fear of injury protects us from harm.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fear of punishment or retaliation restrains our harming one another.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fear helps us focus on a problem and rehearse coping strategies.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fearful expressions improve peripheral vision and speed eye movements, thus boosting sensory input.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Learning Fear: **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Through conditioning, people learn to associate the fear of a certain object with an underlying fear.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When infants begin to crawl, they learn from their falls and near-falls—and become increasingly afraid of heights.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Learning by observation extends the list of fears.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Susan Mineka (1985, 2002) sought to explain why nearly all monkeys reared in the wild fear snakes, yet lab-reared monkeys do not.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To find out, Mineka experimented with six monkeys reared in the wild (all strongly fearful of snakes) and their lab-reared offspring (virtually none of which feared snakes).
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">After repeatedly observing their parents or peers refusing to reach for food in the presence of a snake, the younger monkeys developed a similar strong fear of snakes.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Similarly, humans learn fears from observing others. This suggests that our fears include the fears we learn from our parents and friends.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Biology of Fear: **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Humans learn to gear an object quickly. <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One key to fear learning lies in the amygdala <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The amygdala plays a key role in associating various emotions, including fear, with certain situations
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rabbits learn to react with fear to a tone that predicts an impending small shock, unless their amygdala is damaged.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">If a person has suffered damage to the nearby hippocampus, they still show the emotional reaction, an implicit memory—but they won’t be able to remember why.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">If they have instead suffered amygdala damage, they will consciously remember the conditioning but will show no emotional effect of it.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Patients who have lost use of their amygdala are unusually trusting of scary-looking people.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Some people have fears that fall outside the average range.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Some, with //phobias//, have intense fears of specific objects (such as bugs) or situations (such as public speaking) that disrupt their ability to cope.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Others are less fearful.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Con artists and killers calmly charm their intended victims.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Genes influence our temperament, our emotional reactivity.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Among identical twins, one twin’s level of fearfulness is similar to the other’s, even when they have been reared separately.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Scientists have isolated a gene that influences the amygdala’s response to frightening situations
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">People with a short version of this gene have less of a protein that speeds the reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">With more serotonin available to activate their amygdala neurons, people with this short gene exhibit a revved-up amygdala response to frightening pictures.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Anger: **
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">What makes us angry? Sometimes anger is a response to a friend or loved one’s perceived misdeeds, especially when the person’s act seems willful, unjustified, and avoidable . But small hassles and blameless annoyances—foul odors, high temperatures, dead cell phones, traffic jams, aches and pains—also have the power to make us angry.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Anger can harm us; chronic hostility is linked to heart disease.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">How to get rid of anger: some work off a situation with exercise, others listen to music, talk to friends, etc.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Encouraging people to vent their rage is typical in individualized cultures, but it would seldom be heard in cultures where people’s identity is centered more on the group.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">People who keenly sense their interdependence see anger as a threat to group harmony.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Western “vent your anger” advice presumes that through aggressive action or fantasy we can achieve **catharsis**, or emotional release.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The catharsis hypothesis maintains that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Experimenters report that //sometimes// when people retaliate against a provoker, they may indeed calm down. But this tends to be true only //if// their counterattack is directed against the provoker, //if// their retaliation seems justifiable, and //if// their target is not intimidating ; this is only temporarily true, if it does not leave us feeling guilty or anxious.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Catharsis can fail to cleanse one’s rage. Expressing anger breeds more anger.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">it may provoke further retaliation, thus escalating a minor conflict into a major confrontation.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Expressing anger can magnify anger.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When anger fuels physically or verbally aggressive acts we later regret, it becomes maladaptive.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Anger primes prejudice.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">After 9/11, Americans who responded with anger more than fear displayed intolerance for immigrants and Muslims.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Angry outbursts that temporarily calm us are dangerous in another way: They may be reinforcing and therefore habit forming.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Best way to handle anger:
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">First, wait. You can bring down the level of physiological arousal of anger by waiting. Any emotional arousal will wane, if given enough time.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Second, deal with anger in a way that involves neither being chronically angry over every little annoyance, nor sulking and rehearsing your grievances
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Calm yourself by exercising, playing an instrument, or talking it through with a friend.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Anger does communicate strength and competence <span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">It can benefit a relationship when it expresses a grievance in ways that promote reconciliation rather than retaliation.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Controlled expressions of anger are more adaptive than either hostile outbursts or pent-up angry feelings.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">What if someone else’s behavior really hurts you?
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Research suggests the response of forgiveness.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Without letting the offender off the hook or inviting further harm, forgiveness releases anger and calms the body.

__**Motivation Experiment Discussion Questions:**__
 * **I am aware of the significance of the GPA.** - This would reveal the students' overall awareness of what the GPA is, and the realization that the GPA is important towards their future year; the GPA from their freshman year actually counts toward their overall high school career.
 * **I don't care if I pass or fail certain classes** - Students need to realize that all classes count, and failing a class would be reflected in their GPA and their transcript, so they should take some sort of consideration towards their grades/ passing their classes. Also, it is statistically proven that those who are held back their 9th grade, more than any other grade, will most likely not graduate. Do want to be a part of that statistic?
 * **I want to graduate high school.** - Graduation is still a while away from their freshman year. If they want to graduate, they better get their act together and actually pass their classes. Though I concede that, if you fail, you have summer school, summer school/ failing a class has negative impacts towards your overall transcript and permanent record, which colleges will see. Whether they plan to work, or go to college adfter high school, failing a class/ being held back is not a good indication for future colleges/ employers.
 * **I have skipped a class this year.** - Skipping a class shows your lack of care towards school; your lack of care towards school will result in potential failure in high school, and that failure in high school will haunt you for the rest of your life. Skipping a class, even for one day, puts you at risk for missing vital information/ notes. That loss of vital information would mean that you might not know information on a quiz or pop quiz, and will overall be detrimental to your grade.
 * **I care about what people think of me**. - For those who don't, Do you really? What if you're a failure, and their highly successful and looking down on you? Do you care then?

**__Notes: p. 389 - 396__**

 * __Happiness:__**
 * One’s state of happiness or unhappiness affects everything.
 * People who are happy perceive the world as safer, feel more confident, make decisions more easily, rate job applicants more favorably, are more cooperative and tolerant, and live healthier and more energized and satisfied lives.
 * When your mood is gloomy and your thinking preoccupied, life as a whole seems depressing and meaningless.
 * When we’re happy, we tend to help others more often.
 * In study after study, a mood-boosting experience (finding money, succeeding on a challenging task, recalling a happy event) has made people more likely to give money, pick up someone’s dropped papers, volunteer time, and do other good deeds.
 * ** Feel-good, do-good phenomenon ** : people’s tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood.
 * Despite the significance of happiness, psychology throughout its history has more often focused on negative emotions.
 * Anger is mentioned in numerous pieces, as well as depression.
 * There is good reason to focus on negative emotions. They can make our lives miserable and drive us to seek help.
 * Researchers are becoming increasingly interested in well-being, assessed either as feelings of happiness (sometimes defined as a high ratio of positive to negative feelings) or as a sense of satisfaction with life.
 * ** Well-being ** : self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people’s quality.


 * __ The Short Life of Emotional Ups and Downs: __**
 * Despite the negative/ positive feelings associated with a certain event, those feelings are short-lived.
 * Apart from prolonged grief over the loss of a loved one or lingering anxiety after a trauma (such as child abuse, rape, or the terrors of war), even tragedy is not permanently depressing.
 * Ex. Learning that one is HIV-positive is devastating. But after five weeks of adapting to the grim news, those who have tested positive report feeling less emotionally distraught than they had expected.
 * A major disability often leaves people less happy than average, yet happier than able-bodied people with depression.
 * The trend is similar in less life-threatening situations;
 * We overestimate the duration of our emotions and underestimate our capacity to adapt.
 * Positive emotions are similarly hard to sustain. They are also prone to fluctuations.


 * __Wealth and Well-Being:__**
 * There is evidence that wealth, to a point, correlates with well-being:
 * Within most countries, though especially in poor countries, individuals with lots of money are typically happier than those who struggle to afford life’s basic needs. They also often enjoy better health than those stressed by poverty and lack of control over their lives.
 * People in rich countries are also somewhat happier than those in poor countries.
 * Those who have experienced a recent windfall from a lottery, an inheritance, or a surging economy typically feel some elation.
 * It seems that you can buy your way out of hunger and hopelessness, and it also buys happiness.
 * Once one has enough money for comfort and security, piling up more and more matters less and less.
 * This diminishing returns phenomenon is familiar to economists as diminishing marginal utility and to you as the second piece of dessert satisfying you less than the first.
 * The income-happiness correlation seemingly occurs because more income produces greater happiness.
 * Ironically, those who strive hardest for wealth tend to live with lower well-being.
 * This is especially so for those seeking money to prove themselves, gain power, or show off rather than support their families.


 * __ Two Psychological Phenomena: Adaptation and Comparison: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Two psychological principles explain why, for those who are not poor, more money buys little than temporary happiness and why our emotions seem to pull us back.
 * o **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Happiness and prior experience: __**
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> The **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">adaptation-level phenomenon **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">describes our tendency to judge various stimuli relative to those we have previously experienced.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">We adjust our neutral levels, the points at which sounds seem neither loud nor soft, temperatures neither hot nor cold, events neither pleasant nor unpleasant, based on our experience.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">If our current condition; our income, academic average, or social prestige increases, we feel an initial surge of pleasure. We then adapt to this new level of achievement, come to consider it normal, and require something even better to give us another surge of happiness.
 * o **__<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Happiness and Others’ Attainments: __**
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Happiness is relative not only to our past experience but also to our comparisons with others <span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">. <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">We are always comparing ourselves with others. And whether we feel good or bad depends on who those others are. We are slow-witted or clumsy only when others are smarter or more agile.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Relative Deprivation **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ex. **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Despite a relatively rapid promotion rate for the group, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> many soldiers were frustrated about their own promotion rates

=__**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Reflection of "Motivation" w/ Freshman: **__=

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Preparation-wise, I feel as though we weren't as successful as I had hoped to be. I think this might have resulted from a lack of preparation. If we were given the student surveys ahead of time, we would've been more prepared, and had more time to formulate our speech/ discussion with the freshman; find out their strengths, weaknesses, commonalities among the students in the group. A lot of our questions were based off the survey questions, and any comments we made were, for the most part, impromptu.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Besides that, I thought the discussion was somewhat successful. Some students were pretty active in the discussion, i.e. opening up to Jackie and I, and talking about their classes, their fears, etc. It was also evident that there were people who obviously didn’t want to be there; some had their heads down the entire time, others with headphones in their ears. Those who actually responded to us were doing pretty well. They maintained “passing” grades, which was a relief to hear. Some had failed a class for a quarter, but after speaking with us, they responded that they would “work harder next quarter”. One motive of a student was sports. We informed him that he needed to maintain a certain grade/ pass classes to actually play a sport, and upon hearing this, he said he was going to try and “pass his classes”.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Overall, I feel that we kind-of shed some light on the students. Those who listened were informed of what the GPA actually was, the fact that freshman year actually counts, the importance of actually going to classes, a brief introduction to AP classes, the necessity of high school, etc. Many had told me that they found their classes easy, and I informed them of the different ranges of classes and difficulties of classes. I think I got through at least one person, and convinced him to take predominately honors classes, if not one AP class. Hopefully, I’m not mistaken, and I actually got through to some of them.

= **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">PsychSim 5: EXPRESSING EMOTION ** = <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In this activity you will learn about the role of facial expressions in the nonverbal communication of emotion.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Primary Affects **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> What emotions are generally considered primary affects? How do they relate to facial expressions?
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, and disgust
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">These emotions are the limited number of distinct emotions.

|| **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">1 **  || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Surprise: eyebrows raised or curved, producing deep, horizontal wrinkle across forehead || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Eyes are wide open; upper eyelid raised, lower eyelid pulled down || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Jaws dropped, teeth relaxed. || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">2 **  || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fear: eyebrows raised with inner corners of the brows drawn together, straightening the brows and producing short horizontal wrinkles on forehead || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Eyes are open wide, with upper eyelid raised and the lower eyelid tense and slightly raised. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Mouth is open but tense, with the corners of the lip drawn back slightly, often asymmetrically. || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">3 **  || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Disgust: eyebrows are lowered (lowering the upper eyelid), while the lower eyelid is raised slightly, reducing the amount of eye that is visible || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Eye is barely visible. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Upper lip raised and lower lip is also raised and pressed against upper lip. || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">4 **  || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Anger: the brows are lowered (esp. the corners) and drawn together so that vertical wrinkles often appear b/t the brows. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Both eyelids are tense, producing a hard stare. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lips are pressed firmly together, or are opened in a tense, square shape (as if shouting) || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">5 ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Happiness: brows and forehead are relaxed || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cheeks are raised, producing small wrinkles below the lower eyelids. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The corners of the lips are raised, lips are drawn back. || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">6 **  || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sadness: inner corners of brows are raised || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Inner corners of eyelids are raised || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Corners of lips are turned down ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Facial Code **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Using the table below, describe the characteristic positions of the eyebrows, eyes, and mouth for each of the six primary affects.
 * || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">EYEBROWS **  ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">EYES **  ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">MOUTH **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">How does the expression of disgust differ from the other primary affects?
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In disgust, there is a nose wrinkle/
 * <span style="font-family: Times-Bold,sans-serif;">Emotional Blends **
 * <span style="font-family: Times-Roman,sans-serif;">What are emotional blends? How do people generally express them?
 * o <span style="font-family: Times-Roman,sans-serif;">Emotional blends: a combination of the facial codes associated with the experienced emotions.
 * § <span style="font-family: Times-Roman,sans-serif;">If the codes specift conflicting positions for the eyebrows and lips, usually people display one emotion in the upper region of the face and the other in the lower.


 * <span style="font-family: Times-Bold,sans-serif;">Masking Emotion **
 * <span style="font-family: Times-Roman,sans-serif;">How are people able to mask emotions?
 * o <span style="font-family: Times-Roman,sans-serif;">Depending on the numer of facial muscles involved in the facial expression and the complexirt of their movements, it may take a second or more for the facial expression to be fully formed. This means that other signals could interrupt or “short-circuit” the facial expressions, allowing some individuals to compose themselves and show a “poker face” even in the midst of powerful emotional experiences.

__**Notes: (p.396-406):**__
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress and Health: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress can have negative effects on health.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Large amounts enduring stress can bring on (in those of us who are physiologically predisposed) skin rashes, asthma attacks, or high blood pressure (hypertension).
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">It can also increase our risk for serious illness and death.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To study the influences of unhealthy and health behaviors, the field of **behavioral medicine** was created: an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Healthy psychology **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: a subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress and Illness: __**
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">is not just a stimulus or a response; <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">it is the process by which we appraise and cope with environmental threats and challenges <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress arises less from events themselves than from how we appraise them <span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One person regards a new job as a welcome challenge; someone else appraises it as risking failure.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When short-lived, or when perceived as challenges, stressors can have positive effects.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A momentary stress can mobilize the immune system for fending off infections and healing wounds <span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress arouses and motivates us to conquer problems.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stressors can also threaten us, and experiencing severe or prolonged stress may harm us.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Children’s physiological responses to severe child abuse put them at later risk of chronic disease.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Those who had post-traumatic stress reactions to heavy combat in the Vietnam War went on to suffer greatly elevated rates of circulatory, digestive, respiratory, and infectious diseases.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Stress Response System: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Interest in stress has been prevalent since Hippocrates, but it wasn’t until the 1920’s that Walter Cannon (1929) <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">confirmed that the stress response is part of a unified mind-body system.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Observed that extreme cold, lack of oxygen, and emotion-arousing incidents all trigger an outpouring of the stress hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine from the central core of the adrenal glands.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> This is but one part of the sympathetic nervous system’s response. When alerted by any of a number of brain pathways, the sympathetic nervous system, increases heart rate and respiration, diverts blood from digestion to the skeletal muscles, dulls pain, and releases sugar and fat from the body’s stores. All of this prepares the body for the response that Cannon called fight or flight.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Psychologists have also identified an additional stress response system: On orders from the cerebral cortex (via the hypothalamus and pituitary gland), the outer part of the adrenal glands secrete **glucocorticoid** stress hormones such as **cortisol.**
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The two stress hormone systems work at different speeds ; “In a fight-or-flight scenario, epinephrine is the one handing out guns; glucocorticoids are the ones drawing up blueprints for new aircraft carriers needed for the war effort.”
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">There are alternatives to fight or flight:
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">1: Withdraw. Pull back. Conserve energy. Faced with an extreme disaster, such as a ship sinking, some people become paralyzed by fear.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">2: seek and give support: Tend and befriend—common among women
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Facing stress, men more often than women tend to socially withdraw, turn to alcohol, or become aggressive.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Women more often respond to stress by nurturing and banding together
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Partly due to **oxytocin**, a stress-moderating hormone associated with pair-bonding in animals and released by cuddling, massage, and breast-feeding in humans.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hans Selye (1936, 1976)discovered that the body’s adaptive response to stress was so general, like a single burglar alarm that sounds no matter what intrudes.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Called it **general adaptation syndrome (GAS)**: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Phase 1, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">you experience an __alarm reaction__ due to the sudden activation of your sympathetic nervous system. Your heart rate zooms. Blood is diverted to your skeletal muscles. You feel the faintness of shock.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">With your resources mobilized, you are now ready to fight the challenge during Phase 2, __resistance.__ Your temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high, and there is a sudden outpouring of hormones.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">If persistent, the stress may eventually deplete your body’s reserves during Phase 3, __exhaustion__. With exhaustion, you are more vulnerable to illness or even, in extreme cases, collapse and death.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stressful Life Events: __**
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Research has focused on our responses to three types of stressors: catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Catastrophes **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> are unpredictable large-scale events, such as war and natural disasters that nearly everyone appraises as threatening.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In disaster’s wake, rates of psychological disorders such as depression and anxiety rose an average 17 percent.
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">R <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">efugees fleeing their homeland also suffer increased rates of psychological disorders.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Their stress is twofold: the trauma of uprooting and family separation, and the challenges of adjusting to a foreign culture’s new language, ethnicity, climate, and social norms.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A **significant personal life change**, such as the death of a loved one, the loss of a job, leaving home, a marriage, a divorce, is the second type of life- event stressor.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Life transitions and insecurities are often keenly felt during young adulthood.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Explains the high percentage of stress felt when young adults take on too many things at once.
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One who has suffered a significant personal life change, become more susceptible to illness, or health problems, such as a heart attack.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A Finnish study of 96,000 widowed people confirmed the phenomenon: Their risk of death doubled in the week following their partner’s death.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Daily hassles **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> are another significant event; our happiness may stem less from enduring good fortune than from our response to daily events, i.e. a hoped-for medical result, or a perfect test score.
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This is true for the opposite: E <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">veryday annoyances: rush-hour traffic, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">aggravating housemates, long lines at the store, too many things to do, e-mail spam, and obnoxious cell-phone talkers, may be the most significant sources of stress.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Over time, these little stressors can add up and take a toll on our health and well-being.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Hypertension rates are high among residents of impoverished areas where the stresses that accompany inadequate income, unemployment, solo parenting, and overcrowding are part of daily life for many people.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In Europe, hypertension rates are likewise highest in countries where people express the least satisfaction with their lives
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For minority populations, daily pressures may be compounded by racism, which, like other stressors, can have both psychological and physical consequences.

<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">We can view the stress effect on our disease resistance as a price we pay for the benefits of stress.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress and the Heart: __**
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Elevated blood pressure is just one of the factors that increase the risk of **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">coronary heart disease **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">, the closing of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In addition to hypertension and a family history of the disease, many behavioral and physiological factors, smoking, obesity, a high-fat diet, physical inactivity, and an elevated cholesterol level increase the risk of heart disease.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Psychological factors of stress and personality also play a big role.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Meyer Friedman, Ray Rosenman, and their colleagues tested the idea that stress increases vulnerability to heart disease
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">They measured the blood cholesterol level and clotting speed of 40 U. S. tax accountants. They found that from January through March, both of these coronary warning indicators were completely normal.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Then, as the accountants began scrambling to finish their clients’ tax returns before the April 15 filing deadline, their cholesterol and clotting measures rose to dangerous levels. In May and June, with the deadline past, the measures returned to normal. The researchers’ hunch had paid off: Stress predicted heart attack risk.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Friedman and Rosenman also conducted a nine-year study of more than 3000 healthy men aged 35 to 59.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">At the start of the study, they interviewed each man for 15 minutes about his work and eating habits.During the interview, they noted the man’s manner of talking and other behavioral patterns.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">hose who seemed the most reactive, competitive, hard-driving, impatient, time-conscious, supermotivated, verbally aggressive, and easily angered they called **Type A**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The roughly equal number who were more easygoing they called **Type B**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">M <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">ore recent research has revealed that Type A’s toxic core is negative emotions, especially the anger associated with an aggressively reactive temperament <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Type A individuals are more often “combat ready. ”
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Type A person’s blood may contain excess cholesterol and fat that later get deposited around the heart.
 * [[image:jdmtyper.gif]]
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Depression is also lethal:
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The accumulated evidence from 57 studies suggests that “depression substantially increases the risk of death, especially death by unnatural causes and cardiovascular disease”.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Recent research suggests that heart disease and depression may both result when chronic stress triggers persistent inflammation.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress disrupts the body’s disease-fighting immune system, thus enabling the body to focus its energies on fleeing or fighting the threat.
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Produce more proteins that contribute to inflammation.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress and Susceptibility to Disease: __**
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress contributes to stress-related <span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">** psychophysiological ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">** illnesses ** <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">such as hypertension and some headaches. Stress also affects our resistance to disease, and this understanding has led to the burgeoning development of the field of **psychoneuroimmunology (PNI).**
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">PNI studies how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes affect our immunesystem (psycho-neuro-immunology), and how all these factors influence our health and wellness.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Psychoneuroimmunology: __**
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">immune system is a complex surveillance system that defends the body by isolating and destroying bacteria, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">viruses, and other foreign substances.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This system includes two types of white blood cells, called **lymphocytes**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * § **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">B lymphocytes **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">form in the //b//one marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections.
 * § **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">T lymphocytes **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> form in the //t//hymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances, even “good” ones, such as transplanted organs.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Two other important agents of the immune system are:
 * § **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Macrophage ** **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">, ** <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">which identifies, pursues, and ingests harmful invaders and worn-out cells
 * § **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">natural killer cells ** **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">, ** <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">which pursue diseased cells (such as those infected by viruses or cancer).
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Age, nutrition, genetics, body temperature, and stress all influence the immune system’s activity.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Your immune system can err in two directions. Responding too strongly, it may attack the body’s own tissues, causing arthritis or an allergic reaction.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Underreacting, it may allow a dormant herpes virus to erupt or cancer cells to multiply.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The brain regulates the secretion of stress hormones, which suppress the disease-fighting lymphocytes.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Surgical wounds heal more slowly in stressed animals and humans.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Compared with the healing of punch wounds in unstressed married couples, either the stress of a 30-minute marital spat or ongoing marital conflict caused punch wounds to take a day or two longer to heal
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In another experiment, 47 percent of participants living stress-filled lives developed colds after a virus was dropped in their noses, as did only 27 percent of those living relatively free of stress.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In follow-up research, the happiest and most relaxed people were likewise markedly less vulnerable to an experimentally delivered cold virus
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Managing stress may be life-sustaining.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The stress effect on immunity makes physiological sense.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">It takes energy to fight infections and maintain fevers.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Thus, when diseased, our bodies reduce muscular energy output by inactivity and increased sleep.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress creates a competing energy need. Stress triggers an aroused fight-or-flight response, diverting energy from the disease-fighting immune system to the muscles and brain, rendering us more vulnerable to illness
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress does not make us sick, but it does alter our immune functioning, making us less able to resist infection and more prone to heart disease.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress and Aids: __**
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Researchers have found that stress and negative emotions do correlate with (a) a progression from HIV infection to AIDS, and (b) the speed of decline in those infected.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">HIV-infected men faced with stressful life circumstances, such as the loss of a partner, exhibit somewhat greater immune suppression and a faster disease progression.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Efforts to reduce stress would, on a small-scale, help control the disease.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Educational initiatives, bereavement support groups,cognitive therapy, relaxation training, and exercise programs that reduce distress have all had positive consequences for HIV-positive individuals.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Another form of HIV prevention is education programs, such as the ABC (//a//bstinence, //b//eing faithful, //c//ondom use) program used in many countries, with seeming success in Uganda.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress and Cancer: __**
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress and negative emotions have also been linked to cancer’s rate of progression.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Some investigators have reported that people are at increased risk for cancer within a year after experiencing depression, helplessness, or bereavement.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One large Swedish study revealed that people with a history of workplace stress had 5.5 times greater risk of colon cancer than those who reported no such problems, a difference not attributable to differing age, smoking, drinking, or physical characteristics.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Other researchers have found no link between stress and human cancer.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Concentration camp survivors and former prisoners of war, for example, have not exhibited elevated cancer rates.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stress invigorates our lives by arousing and motivating us. An unstressed life would hardly be challenging or productive.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Behavioral medicine research provides yet another reminder of one of contemporary psychology’s overriding themes: Mind and body interact; everything psychological is simultaneously physiological.