Unit+V


 * Unit V: States of Consciousness **


 * __5. 1. 1 Biological Rhythms and Sleep:__**
 * **Circadian Rhythm:**
 * o **circadian rhythm:**the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur within a (roughly) 24 hour cycle
 * § rhythms include cycles in blood pressure, pulse rate, body temperature, blood sugar level, hormone levels, and metabolism
 * § circadian rhythm regulated by the **suprachiasmatic nucleus**
 * light-sensitive portion of the hypothalamus that produces **melatonin**, a hormone that regulates biological clock and induces sleep
 * o circadian rhythm sensitive to external cues of dark and light and also cultural cues to time (e.g. clocks)
 * § jet lag is more disruptive going west à east (lose an hour, shorten our 24 hour cycle)
 * § east à west adds an hour, caters to our “natural” 24.9 hour circadian rhythm
 * § shift workers adapt better to progressively later shifts than to progressively earlier ones
 * **Sleep Stages:**
 * o **REM Sleep:**rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
 * § marked by rapid & irregular breathing and heart rate, quick bursts of eye movements behind closed lids
 * o **alpha waves:** relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
 * o **sleep:**naturally recurrent experience during which normal consciousness is suspended
 * § **Stage 1:**
 * may “see” flashing lights or geometric patterns, experience a falling or floating sensation, or feel body jerk violently and suddenly (//hypnic jerk//)
 * Hallucinations: false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.
 * § **Stage 2:**
 * lasts for about 20 minutes
 * marked by //sleep spindles// (brief bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain activity) and //K-complex// (single high-amplitude waves)
 * relatively easily awakened, but would now most likely report that you were asleep
 * § **Stage 3 &4:**
 * stages 3 & 4 marked by production of **delta waves**: slow, high-amplitude waves associated with deep sleep
 * **REM Sleep:**
 * o **NREM sleep:**non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.
 * § **Paradoxical sleep**: body internally aroused and externally calm
 * __5. 1. 2. Why Do We Sleep?__**
 * Sleeping patterns may be genetically influenced
 * Sleeping patterns may also be culturally influenced
 * Allowed to sleep unhindered, most adults will sleep at least 9 hours a nighty
 * o Awake, refreshed, sustain better moods, and perform more efficient and accurate work
 * Sleep commands 1/3 of our life
 * **The Effects of Sleep Loss:**
 * o 40% of adults are so sleepy during the day that their daily activities are affected
 * o sleep deprivation studies
 * § cognitive, emotional, and physical difficulties after 3 nights of inadequate sleep
 * § responding quickly to visual cues more difficult after 2 nights of sleep deprivation
 * sleepy drivers account for at least 100,000 accidents per year (20% of American traffic accidents)
 * § less than 6 hours per night = increased impatience and aggravation at minor frustrations, greater dissatisfaction with life as a whole
 * o Functions:
 * § Sleep protects.
 * § Sleep helps us recuperate.
 * § Sleep is for making memories.
 * § Sleep also feeds creative thinking.
 * § Sleep may play a role in the growth process.

**__Unit V: States of Consciousness (Continued) p. 185-197 __**
 * __5. 1. 3: Sleep Disorders __**
 * **insomnia: ** repeated difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early
 * o  more than the occasional difficult sleeping due to stress, anxiety, or excitement
 * o  sleeping pills can sometimes be a problematic solution
 * § suppress REM sleep, addictive and tolerance develops
 * Treating insomnia:
 * o Exercise regularly but not in the late evening. (Late afternoon is best.)
 * o Avoid all caffeine after early afternoon, and avoid rich foods before bedtime. Instead, try a glass of milk, which provides raw materials for the manufacture of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that facilitates sleep.
 * o Relax before bedtime, using dimmer light.
 * o Sleep on a regular schedule (rise at the same time even after a restless night) and avoid naps. Sticking to a schedule boosts daytime alertness, too, as shown in an experiment in which University of Arizona students averaged 7.5 hours of sleep a night on either a varying or consistent schedule
 * o Hide the clock face so you aren’t tempted to check it repeatedly.
 * o Reassure yourself that a temporary loss of sleep causes no great harm.
 * o Realize that for any stressed organism, being vigilant is natural and adaptive. A personal conflict during the day often means a fitful sleep that night . Managing your stress levels will enable more restful sleeping.
 * o If all else fails, settle for less sleep, either going to bed later or getting up earlier.
 * **narcolepsy: ** uncontrollable overwhelming sleep attacks that last 5-20 minutes
 * o possibly due to deficit in **hypocretin**, a neurotransmitter that keeps us alert
 * o usually treated with stimulants akin to amphetamines
 * **sleep apnea ****: ** temporary cessation of breathing during sleep, accompanied by loud snoring
 * o decreased blood oxygen wakes sleeper, sometimes up to 400 times per night
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">person typically doesn’t remember waking or having trouble breathing
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">night terrors ****<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> vivid and frightening experiences while sleeping
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">distinct from **nightmares:** dreams with strong negative emotion
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">nightmares typically during morning REM; night terrors in stages 3-4, during first third of a night’s sleep
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">cause person to suddenly sit up, sweat and breathe heavily, can be impossible to wake (episodes usually forgotten by morning)
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">most common among boys 3-7 years old
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">5. 1. 4. Dreams: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">What we dream:
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">sequences of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind can dream during any stage of sleep
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">REM dreams: **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> hallucinations of the sleeping mind” (Loftus & Ketcham,1994, p. 67)—are vivid, emotional, and bizarre. They are unlike daydreams, which tend to involve the familiar details of our life
 * o **//<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To satisfy our own wishes //**<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">dreams allow us to express and fulfill unconscious desires
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Manifest content **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Latent content **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
 * o **//<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To file away memories. //**
 * o **//<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To develop and preserve neural pathways //**<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * o **//<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To make sense of neural static //**<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * o **//<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To reflect cognitive development. //**


 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">REM rebound: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).

**__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 14pt;">Unit 5: States of Consciousness (Continued) p. 192-207 __**
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Hypnosis: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">hypnosis: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.
 * **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Facts and Falsehoods: __**
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Can anyone experience hypnosis? :
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">To some extent, we are all open to suggestion.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Postural Sway: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> people who respond to such suggestions without hypnosis are the same people who respond with hypnosis.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Hypnotic ability: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> the ability to focus attention totally on a task, to become imaginatively absorbed in it, to entertain fanciful possibilities
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Can hypnosis enhance recall of forgotten events?
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">“Hypnotically refreshed” memories combine fact with fiction.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Can hypnosis force people to act against their will?
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">An authoritative person in a legitimate context can induce people—hypnotized or not—to perform some unlikely acts. Hypnosis researcher Nicholas Spanos (1982) put it directly: “The overt behaviors of hypnotic subjects are well within normal limits.”
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Can hypnosis be therapeutic? :
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Hypnotherapists try to help patients harness their own healing powers
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">posthypnotic suggestion: a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Can hypnosis alleviate pain? :
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Yes, hypnosis //can// relieve pain (Druckman & Bjork, 1994; Patterson,2004).
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">When unhypnotized people put their arm in an ice bath, they feel intense pain within 25 seconds.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">When hypnotized people do the same after being given suggestions to feel no pain, they indeed report feeling little pain. As some dentists know, even light hypnosis can reduce fear, thus reducing hypersensitivity to pain.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Explaining the Hypnotized State: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Hypnosis as a Social Phenomenon:
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">advocates of the social influence theory contend that hypnotic phenomena—like the behaviors associated with other supposed altered states, such as dissociative identity disorder and spirit or demon possession—are an extension of everyday social behavior, not something unique to hypnosis (Spanos, 1994, 1996).


 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Hypnosis as Divided Consciousness
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">dissociation: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Selective attention **
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">In hypnosis as in life, //much of our behavior occurs on autopilot//. We have two-track minds.
 * //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Drugs and Consciousness: //**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Psychoactive drugs: a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Dependence and Addiction:
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">tolerance: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect.
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">withdrawal: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">physical dependence: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">psychological dependence: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Misconceptions about Addiction:
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">addiction: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Myth 1 **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">. Addictive drugs quickly corrupt; for example, morphine taken to control pain is powerfully addictive and often leads to heroin abuse.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Myth 2. **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> Addictions cannot be overcome voluntarily; therapy is required.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Myth 3. **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> We can extend the concept of addiction to cover not just drug dependencies, but a whole spectrum of repetitive, pleasure-seeking behaviors
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Psychoactive Drugs: __**
 * **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Depressants: __**
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Depressants ** <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">are drugs such as alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates that calm neural activity and slow body functions.
 * o **<span style="color: #68033b; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Alcohol **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> lowers our inhibitions,slows neural processing, disrupts memory formation, and reduces self-awareness.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Disinhibition **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> Alcohol is an equal-opportunity drug: It increases harmful tendencies—as when angered people become aggressive after drinking.And it increases helpful tendencies. The urges you would feel if sober are the ones you will more likely act upon when intoxicated.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Slowed Neural Processing **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> Low doses of alcohol relax the drinker by slowing sympathetic nervous system activity. In larger doses, alcohol can become a staggering problem: Reactions slow, speech slurs, skilled performance deteriorates.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Memory Disruption **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> Alcohol also disrupts the processing of recent experiences into long-term memories.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Reduced Self-Awareness and Self-Control **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> Alcohol not only impairs judgment and memory, it also reduces self-awareness.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Expectancy Effects **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> As with other psychoactive drugs, alcohol’s behavioral effects stem not only from its alteration of brain chemistry but also from the user’s expectations. When people believe that alcohol affects social behavior in certain ways, and believe, rightly or wrongly, that they have been drinking alcohol, they will behave accordingly.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Alcohol + Sex = The Perfect Storm **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> Alcohol’s effects on self-control and social expectations often converge in sexual situations.
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Barbiturates: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">mimic the effects of alcohol.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Because they depress nervous system activity, barbiturates such as Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are sometimes prescribed to induce sleep or reduce anxiety
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Opiates: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">When abusing the opiates, which include heroin, a user’s pupils constrict, breathing slows, and lethargy sets in, as blissful pleasure replaces pain and anxiety
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Stimulants: __**
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Stimulants **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">: drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Amphetamines: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Methamphetamine: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Methamphetamine has even greater effects:
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">can include eight hours or so of heightened energy and euphoria.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">The drug triggers the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which stimulates brain cells that enhance energy and mood.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Caffeine: **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;"> Like other drugs, caffeine used regularly and in heavy doses produces tolerance: Its stimulating effects lessen. And discontinuing heavy caffeine intake often produces withdrawal symptoms, including fatigue and headache.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Nicotine: **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Nicotine, like other addictive drugs, is not only compulsive and mood-altering, it is also reinforcing.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Smoking delivers its hit of nicotine within 7 seconds, triggering the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, which in turn diminish appetite and boost alertness and mental efficiency
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">At the same time, nicotine stimulates the central nervous system to release neurotransmitters that calm anxiety and reduce sensitivity to pain.