Unit+IX+-+Developmental+Psychology

= **UNIT IX: Developmental Psychology** =

**__Unit IX: Developmental Psychology Notes: (p.411-441) & (450-453) __** Developmental psychology examines how people are continually developing—physically, cognitively, and socially—from infancy through old age. **__Prenatal Development: __** **__The Competent Newborn: __** **__Infancy and Childhood: __** **__Physical Development: __** **__Motor Development: __** **__Maturation and Infant Memory: __** **__Cognitive Development: __** **__Piaget’s Theory and Current Thinking: __** **__Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory: __** **__Implications for Parents and Teachers: __** **__Origins of Attachment: __** **__Attachment Differences: Temperament and Parenting: __** **__Deprivation of Attachment: __** **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Self-Concept: __** **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Parenting Styles: __** **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Culture and Child-Rearing: __** **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender Development: __** **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender Similarities and Differences: __** **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender and Aggression: __** **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender and Social Connectedness: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Much of its research revolves around:
 * o **Nature and nurture:** How do genetic inheritance (our nature) and experience (the nurture we receive) influence our development?
 * o **Continuity and stages:** Is development a gradual, continuous process like riding an escalator, or does it proceed through a sequence of separate stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder?
 * o **Stability and change:** Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as we age?
 * __<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Prenatal Development and the Newborn-- __**
 * __<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Conception: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A woman is born with all the immature eggs she will ever have—only 1 in 5000 of those eggs will ever mature and be released.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A man begins producing sperm cells at puberty, beginning with 1000 sperm and slows with age.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Over 200 million or more deposited sperm race to reach the unfertilized egg. The few that reach the egg release digestive enzymes that eat at the protective coating of the egg.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As soon as the sperm begins to penetrate and is welcomed, the egg blocks out others.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Before halt a day, the egg and the nucleus fuse and become one.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fewer than half of all fertilized eggs, called **zygotes**, survive beyond the first 2 weeks.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One cell became 2, then 4—each just like the first—until this cell division produced a zygote of some 100 cells within the first week.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Then the cells began to differentiate—to specialize in structure and function.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">About 10 days after conception, the zygote attaches to the mother’s uterine wall, beginning approximately 37 weeks of the closest human relationship.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The zygote’s inner cells become the **embryo**.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Over the next 6 weeks, organs begin to form and function. The heart begins to beat.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By 9 weeks after conception, the embryo looks unmistakably human. It is now a **fetus**.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During the sixth month, organs such as the stomach have developed enough to allow a prematurely born fetus a chance of survival.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">At this point, the fetus is also responsive to sound.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">At each prenatal stage, genetic and environmental factors affect our development.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The **placenta**, which formed as the zygote’s outer cells attached to the uterine wall, transfers nutrients and oxygen from mother to fetus.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The placenta also screens out many potentially harmful substances. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">But some <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> substances slip by, including **teratogens**, which are harmful agents such as viruses and drugs.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">There is no known safe amount of alcohol during pregnancy. Alcohol enters the woman’s bloodstream, and her fetus’—and depresses activity in both their central nervous systems.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A pregnant mother’s alcohol use may prime her offspring to like alcohol.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For 1 in about 800 infants, the effects are visible as **fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)**, marked by a small, misproportioned head and lifelong brain abnormalities <span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Having survived prenatal hazards, we as newborns came equipped with automatic responses ideally suited for our survival.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">We withdrew our limbs to escape pain. If a cloth over our face interfered with our breathing, we turned our head from side to side and swiped at it.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When something touches their cheek, babies turn toward that touch, open their mouth, and vigorously root for a nipple. Finding one, they automatically close on it and begin sucking, which itself requires a coordinated sequence of reflexive tonguing, swallowing, and breathing.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Habituation: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Janine Spencer, Paul Quinn, and their colleagues (1997; Quinn,2002) used a **novelty-preference procedure** to ask 4-month-olds how they recognize cats and dogs.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Suggests that infants focus on the face first, not the body.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Within days after birth, our brain’s neural networks were stamped with the smell of our mother’s body.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">At 3 weeks, if given a pacifier that sometimes turns on recordings of its mother’s voice and sometimes that of a female stranger’s, an infant will suck more vigorously when it hears its now-familiar mother’s voice.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During infancy, a baby grows from <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">newborn to toddler, and during childhood from toddler to teenager. From infancy on, brain and mind, neural hardware and cognitive software, develop together.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In your mother’s womb, your developing brain formed nerve cells at the explosive rate of nearly one-quarter million per minute.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The developing brain cortex actually overproduces neurons, with the number peaking at 28 weeks and then subsiding to a stable 23 billion or so at birth.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">On the day you were born, you had most of the brain cells you would ever have.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">However, your nervous system was immature: After birth,the branching neural networks that eventually enabled you to walk, talk, and remember had a wild growth spurt <span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">From ages 3 to 6, the most rapid growth was in your frontal lobes, which enable rational planning.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This helps explain why preschoolers display a rapidly developing ability to control their attention and behavior
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The association areas; those linked with thinking, memory, and language, are the last cortical areas to develop.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fiber pathways supporting language and agility proliferate into puberty, after which a **pruning processs** huts down excess connections and strengthens others.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">We go through a biological growth process called maturation.
 * § **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Maturation: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Maturation decrees many of our commonalities, from standing before walking, to using nouns before adjectives.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The developing brain enables physical coordination.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As an infant’s muscles and nervous system mature, more complicated skills emerge.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">With occasional exceptions, the motor development sequence is universal.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Babies rollover before they sit unsupported; they crawl on all fours before they begin to walk à <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> reflect maturing of nervous system.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">There is a difference in timing:
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In the United States, for example, 25 percent of all babies walk by age 11 months, 50 percent within a week after their first birthday, and 90 percent by age 15 month.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Genes play a major role in motor development.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Identical twins typically begin sitting up and walking on nearly the same day
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Maturation, including the rapid development of the cerebellum at the back of the brain, creates our readiness to learn walking at about age 1. Experience before that time has a limited effect.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Our memories rarely predate our third birthday.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This is explained by **infantile amnesia**
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By 4-5 years, childhood amnesia is giving way to remembered experiences.
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">E <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">ven into adolescence, the brain areas underlying memory, such as the hippocampus and frontal lobes, continue to mature.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Although we consciously recall little from before age 4, our memory was processing information during those early years.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Rovee-Collier, 1989,1999, observed infant memory, discovering that babies are capable of learning through kicking a mobile.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Their actions indicated that they remembered the original mobile and recognized the difference. Moreover, when tethered to a familiar mobile a month later, they remembered the association and again began kicking.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cognition **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Somewhere on your precarious journey “from egghood to personhood” (Broks, 2007), you became conscious.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Piaget (1920) administered children’s intelligence tests, and while administering the tests, he became <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">intrigued by children’s wrong answers, which, he noted, were often strikingly similar among children of a given age.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Where others saw childish mistakes, Piaget saw intelligence at work.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">His studies led him to believe that a child’s mind develops through a series of stages, in an upward march from the newborn’s simple reflexes to the adult’s abstract reasoning power.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Piaget’s core idea is that the driving force behind our intellectual progression is an unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To this end, the maturing brain builds **schemas**, concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By adulthood, we would’ve built countless schemas.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To explain how we use and adjust our schemas, Piaget proposed two more concepts:
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">First, we **assimilate** new experiences; we interpret them in terms of our current understandings (schemas).
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">But as we interact with the world, we also adjust, or **accommodate**, our schemas to incorporate information provided by new experiences.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Piaget believed that as children construct their understandings while interacting with the world, they experience spurts of change, followed by greater stability as they move from one cognitive plateau to the next.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Viewed these plateaus as forming stages.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Piaget proposed that children progress through four stages of cognitive development, each with distinctive characteristics that permit specific kinds of thinking.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. Sensorimotor stage **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: In the **sensorimotor stage**, from birth to nearly age 2, babies take in the world through their senses and actions, through looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Very young babies seem to live in the present <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">—Piaget presented a child a toy, and then concealed it. The child acted as if it ceased to exist.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Young infants lack **object performance** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the awareness that objects continue to exist when not perceived.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By 8 months, infants begin exhibiting memory for things no longer seen.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Within another month or two, the infant will look for it even after being restrained for several seconds.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">2. Preoperational Stage **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: Piaget believed that until about age 6 or 7, children are in a **preoperational stage**—too young to perform mental operations.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For a 5-year-old, the milk that seems “too much” in a tall, narrow glass may become an acceptable amount if poured into a short, wide glass.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Focusing only on the height dimension, this child cannot perform the operation of mentally pouring the milk back, because she lacks the concept of **conservation**—the principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Egocentrism **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: Piaget contended that preschool children are **egocentric**: They have difficulty perceiving things from another’s point of view.
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Theory of Mind **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As children’s ability to take another’s perspective develops, they seek to understand what made a playmate angry, when a sibling will share, and what might make a parent buy a toy. And they begin to tease, empathize, and persuade.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Our abilities to perform mental operations; to think symbolically, and to take another’s perspective are not absent in the preoperational stage and then reappear, but rather, they show up early and continue to develop.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By age 7, children become increasingly capable of thinking in words and of using words to work out solutions to problems.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">3. Concrete Operational Stage **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: By about 6 or 7 years of age, said Piaget, children enter the **concrete operational stage** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Given concrete materials, they begin to grasp conservation. Understanding that change in form does not mean change in quantity, they can mentally pour milk back and forth between glasses of different shapes.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Piaget believed that during the concrete operational stage, children fully gain the mental ability to comprehend mathematical transformations and conservation.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">4. Formal Operational Stage **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: By age 12, our reasoning expands from the purely concrete (involving actual experience) to encompass abstract thinking (involving imagined realities and symbols).
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By age 12, our reasoning expands from the purely concrete (involving actual experience) to encompass abstract thinking (involving imagined realities and symbols).
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As children approach adolescence, said Piaget, many become capable of solving hypothetical propositions and deducing consequences.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Formal operational thinking **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Piaget’s <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">emphasis was less on the ages at which children typically reach specific milestones than on their sequence.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Studies around the globe, from aboriginal Australia to Algeria to North America, have confirmed that human cognition unfolds basically in the sequence Piaget described.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Today’s researchers, however, see development as more continuous than did Piaget. By detecting the beginnings of each type of thinking at earlier ages, they have revealed conceptual abilities Piaget missed.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Piaget’s emphasis on how the child’s mind grows through interaction with the physical environment is complemented by Vygotsky’s emphasis on how the child’s mind grows through interaction with the social environment.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">If Piaget’s child was a young scientist, Vygotsky’s was a young apprentice. By mentoring children and giving them new words, parents and others provide a temporary scaffold from which children can step to higher levels of thinking.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Language, an important ingredient of social mentoring, provides the building blocks for thinking, noted Vygotsky.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For Vygotsky, a child’s zone of proximal development was the zone between what they could learn with and without help.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">From birth, babies develop an intense bond with their caregivers, coming to prefer familiar faces and voices.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">At about 8 months, they develop **stranger anxiety**. They may greet strangers by crying and reaching for familiar caregivers.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> At about this age, children have schemas for familiar faces; when they cannot assimilate the new face into these remembered schemas, they become distressed.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By 12 months, infants typically cling tightly to a parent when they are frightened or expect separation.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This **attachment** bond is a powerful survival impulse that keeps infants close to their caregivers.
 * § **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Attachment: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Infants become attached to those—typically their parents—who are comfortable and familiar.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Body contact: **
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During the 1950s, University of Wisconsin psychologists Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow bred monkeys for their learning studies. They separated them from their mothers and raised them in individual cages with a cheesecloth baby blanket.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When the blanket was taken away, the monkeys became distressed.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Harlows recognized that this intense attachment to the blanket contradicted the idea that attachment derives from an association with nourishment.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Human infants become attached to parents who are soft and warm and who rock, feed, and pat.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Much parent-infant emotional communication occurs via touch (Hertenstein, 2006), which can be either soothing (snuggles) or arousing (tickles).
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Human attachment also consists of one person providing another with a safe haven when distressed and a secure base from which to explore.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Familiarity: **
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In many animals, attachments based on familiarity likewise form during a **critical period**, an optimal period when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Konrad Lorenz (1937) explored this rigid attachment process, called **imprinting** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Children <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">prefer to eat familiar foods, live in the same familiar neighborhood, attend school with the same old friends. Familiarity is a safety signal. Familiarity breeds content.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Temperament: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One quickly apparent aspect of personality is an infant’s temperament—whether reactive, intense, and fidgety, or easygoing, quiet, and placid.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">From the first weeks of life, difficult babies are more irritable, intense, and unpredictable.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Easy babies are cheerful, relaxed,and predictable in feeding and sleeping.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Slow-to-warm-up infants tend to resist or withdraw from new people and situations
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Temperament tends to persist:
 * § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ex. <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The most emotionally reactive newborns tend also to be the most reactive 9-month-olds.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Heredity predisposes temperament differences.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">identical twins have more similar personalities, including temperament, than do fraternal twins.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Van den Boom randomly assigned one hundred 6-to 9-month-old temperamentally difficult infants to either an experimental condition, in which mothers received personal training in sensitive responding, or to a control condition in which they did not.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">At 12 months of age, 68 percent of the experimental-condition infants were rated securely attached, as were only 28 percent of the control-condition infants.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Developmental theorist Erik Erikson (1902–1994), working in collaboration with his wife, Joan Erikson, said that securely attached children approach life with a sense of **basic trust**: a sense that the world is predictable and reliable.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">He attributed basic trust not to environment or inborn temperament, but to early parenting.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">He theorized that infants blessed with sensitive, loving caregivers form a lifelong attitude of trust rather than fear.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Babies reared in institutions without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver, or locked away at home under conditions of abuse or extreme neglect, are often withdrawn, frightened, even speechless.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In humans, the unloved sometimes become the unloving.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Most abusive parents, and many condemned murderers, report having been neglected or battered as children.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Though most abusers were indeed abused, most abused children do not later become violent criminals or abusive parents.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Most children growing up under adversity (as did the surviving children of the Holocaust) are resilient; they become normal adults.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Extreme early trauma seems to leave footprints on the brain.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">They have changes in the brain chemical serotonin, which calms aggressive impulses.
 * **__<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Disruption of Attachment: __**
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Separated from their families, infants, both monkeys and humans, become upset and, before long, withdrawn and even despairing <span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">If placed in a more positive and stable environment, most infants recover from the separation distress.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In studies of adopted children, Leon Yarrow and his co-workers (1973) found that when children between 6 and 16 months of age were removed from their foster mothers, they initially had difficulties eating, sleeping, and relating to their new mothers.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adults also suffer when attachment bonds are severed.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Agitated preoccupation with the lost partner is followed by deep sadness and, eventually, the beginnings of emotional detachment and a return to normal living.
 * **__<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Does Day Care Affect Attachment? : __**
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">No. In Mother Care/Other Care, developmental psychologist Sandra Scarr (1986) explained that children are “biologically sturdy individuals…who can thrive in a wide variety of life situations.”
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Around the world, “high-quality child care consists of warm, supportive interactions with adults in a safe, healthy, and stimulating environment.…Poor care is boring and unresponsive to children’s needs.”
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Newer research not only confirms that day-care quality matters, but also finds that family poverty often consigns children to lower-quality day care, as well as more family instability and turmoil, more authoritarian parenting (imposing strict rules and demanding obedience), more time in front of the television, and less access to books.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Childhood’s <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">major social achievement is a positive sense of self.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By the end of childhood, at about age 12, most children have developed a **self-concept**: an understanding and assessment of who they are. (Their self-esteem is how they feel about who they are.)
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">At about 15 to 18 months, children will begin to touch their own noses when they see the red spot in the mirror.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Apparently, 18-month-olds have a schema of how their face should look, and they wonder, “What is that spot doing on my face?”
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Beginning with this simple self-recognition, the child’s self-concept gradually strengthens.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By school age, children start to describe themselves in terms of their gender, group memberships, and psychological traits, and they compare themselves with other children.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Children’s views of themselves affect their actions.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Children who form a positive self-concept are more confident, independent, optimistic, assertive, and sociable.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The most heavily researched aspect of parenting has been how, and to what extent, parents seek to control their children.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Authoritarian **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> parents impose rules and expect obedience: “Don’t interrupt.” “Keep your room clean.” “Don’t stay out late or you’ll be grounded.” “Why? Because I said so.”
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Permissive **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> parents submit to their children’s desires. They make few demands and use little punishment.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Authoritative **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> parents are both demanding and responsive. They exert control by setting rules and enforcing them, but they also explain the reasons for rules. And, especially with older children, they encourage open discussion when making the rules and allow exceptions.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Studies by Stanley Coopersmith (1967), Diana Baumrind (1996), and John Buri and others (1988) reveal that children with the highest self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence usually have warm, concerned, authoritative parents.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The association between certain parenting styles (being firm but open) and certain childhood outcomes(social competence) is correlational.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Children’s traits may influence parenting more than vice versa. Parental warmth and control vary somewhat from child to child, even in the same family.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Child-rearing practices reflect cultural values that vary across time and place.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Many Asians and Africans live in cultures that value emotional closeness.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">These cultures encourage a strong sense of **family self**—a feeling that what shames the child shames the family, and what brings honor to the family brings honor to the self.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Our biological sex in turn helps define our **gender**, the biological and social characteristics by which people define male or female. Under the influence of our culture, our gender influences our social development.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Compared with the average man, the average woman enters puberty two years sooner, lives five years longer, carries 70 percent more fat, has 40 percent less muscle, and is 5 inches shorter.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Women smell fainter odors, express emotions more freely, and are offered help more often.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">They are more vulnerable to depression and anxiety, and their risk of developing eating disorders is 10 times greater. But then men are some 4 times more likely to commit suicide or suffer alcohol dependence.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">They are far more often diagnosed with autism, color-blindness, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (as children), and antisocial personality disorder (as adults).
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In surveys, men admit to more **aggression** than do women, and experiments confirm that men tend to behave more aggressively, such as by administering what they believe are more painful electric shocks.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The aggression gender gap pertains to physical aggression (such as hitting) rather than verbal, relational aggression (such as excluding someone).
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The gender gap in physical aggression appears in everyday life at various ages and in various cultures, especially those with gender inequality.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> In dating relationships, violent acts (such as slaps and thrown objects) are often mutual.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Violent crime rates more strikingly illustrate the gender difference.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender and Social Power: **
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Around the world, from Nigeria to New Zealand, people have perceived men as more dominant, forceful, and independent, women as more deferential, nurturant, and affiliative.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In most societies men are socially dominant.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As leaders, men tend to be more directive, even autocratic; women tend to be more democratic, more welcoming of subordinates’ participation in decision making.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When people interact, men are more likely to utter opinions, women to express support.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Such behaviors help sustain social power inequities.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When political leaders are elected, they usually are men, who held 82 percent of the seats in the world’s governing parliaments in 2008.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When salaries are paid, those in traditionally male occupations receive more.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To Carol Gilligan and her colleagues (1982, 1990), the “normal” struggle to create a separate identity describes Western individualist males more than relationship-oriented females.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gilligan believes females tend to differ from males both in being less concerned with viewing themselves as separate individuals and in being more concerned with “making connections.”
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender differences in connectedness surface early in children’s play, and they continue with age.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Boys typically play in large groups with an activity focus and little intimate discussion.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Girls usually play in smaller groups, often with one friend.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Their play is less competitive than boys’ and more imitative of social relationships.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Females are more interdependent than males.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As teens, girls spend more time with friends and less time alone.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As late adolescents, they spend more time on social-networking Internet sites.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As adults, women take more pleasure in talking face-to-face,and they tend to use conversation more to explore relationships.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Men enjoy doing activities side-by-side, and they tend to use conversation to communicate solutions <span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">These gender differences are sometimes reflected in patterns of phone communication.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Women worldwide orient their interests and vocation more to people and less to things.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Bonds and feelings of support are even stronger among women than among men.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As empowered people generally do, men value freedom and self-reliance, which helps explain why men of all ages, worldwide, are less religious.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Men also dominate the ranks of professional skeptics.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Nature of Gender: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A biopsychosocial view suggests both biology destiny and cultures explain gender diversity. Thanks to the interplay among our biological dispositions, our developmental experiences, and our current situations.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In domains where men and women have faced similar challenges—regulating heat with sweat, developing tastes that nourish, growing calluses where the skin meets friction—the sexes are similar.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> In domains pertinent to mating, evolutionary psychologists contend, guys act like guys whether they are elephants or elephant seals, rural peasants or corporate presidents.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Males and females are variations on a single form.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">From your mother, you received an **X chromosome**. From your father, you received the one chromosome out of 46 that is not unisex—either another X chromosome, making you a girl, or a **Y chromosome**, making you a boy.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Y chromosome includes a single gene that throws a master switch triggering the testes to develop and produce the principal male hormone, **testosterone**.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Another key period for sexual differentiation falls during the fourth and fifth prenatal months, when sex hormones bathe the fetal brain and influence its wiring.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Different patterns for males and females develop under the influence of the male’s greater testosterone and the female’s ovarian hormones.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Given sex hormones’ influence on development, what do you suppose happens when glandular malfunction or hormone injections expose a female embryo to excess testosterone?
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">These genetically female infants are born with masculine-appearing genitals, which can either be accepted or altered surgically.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Until puberty, such females tend to act in more aggressive “tomboyish” ways than do most girls, and they dress and play in ways more typical of boys than of girls.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The Nurture of Gender: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Although biologically influenced, gender is also socially constructed. What biology initiates, culture accentuates.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender Roles: __**
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Culture **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> is everything shared by a group and transmitted across generations. We can see culture’s shaping power in the social expectations that guide men’s and women’s behavior.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In psychology, a ** role ** <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> refers to a cluster of prescribed actions, the behaviors we expect of those who occupy a particular social position.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One set of norms defines our culture’s **gender roles**, our expectations about the way men and women should behave.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender roles exist outside the home, too.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Compared with employed women, employed men in the United States spend about an hour and a half more on the job each day and about one hour less on household activities and caregiving.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender roles can smooth social relations.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Attitudes about gender roles also vary over time.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">At the opening of the twentieth century, only one country—New Zealand—granted women the right to vote.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By late 1960s and 1970s, women’s roles outside the home increased.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender ideas vary not only across cultures and over time, but also across generations.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When families emigrate from Asia to Canada and the United States, their children tend to grow up with peers from a new culture.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender and Child-rearing: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As society assigns each of us to a gender, the social category of male or female, the inevitable result is our strong **gender identity**, our sense of being male or female.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To varying extents, we also become **gender typed** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * o **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender typed **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Social learning theory **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> assumes that children learn gender-linked behaviors by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cognition also matters.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In your own childhood, as you struggled to comprehend the world, you—like other children, formed schemas that helped you make sense of your world, one of which, was your gender.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Social learning shapes gender schemas.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Before age 1,children begin to discriminate male and female voices and faces (Martin et al., 2002). After age 2, language forces children to begin organizing their worlds on the basis of gender.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">(p. 450-453) Social Development: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Theorist Erik Erikson (1963) contended that each stage of life has its own **psychosocial** task, a crisis that needs resolution.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Young children wrestle with issues of trust, then autonomy (independence), then initiative
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">School-age children strive for //competence//, feeling able and productive.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">But for people your age, the task, said Erikson, is to synthesize past, present,and future possibilities into a clearer sense of self.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adolescents wonder, “Who am I as an individual? What do I want to do with my life? What values should I live by? What do I believe in?” Erikson called this quest the adolescent’s search for identity.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Forming an Identity: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To refine their sense of identity, adolescents in individualistic cultures usually try out different “selves” in different situations.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Identity **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For both adolescents and adults, group identities often form around how we differ from those around us.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For international students, for those of a minority ethnic group, for people with a disability, for those on a team, a **social identity** often forms around their distinctiveness.
 * § **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Social Identity **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Erikson noticed that some adolescents forge their identity early, simply by adopting their parents’ values and expectations.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The late teen years, when many people like you in industrialized countries begin attending college or working full time, provide new opportunities for trying out possible roles.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Identity also becomes more personalized.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Erikson contended that the adolescent identity stage is followed in young adulthood by a developing capacity for **intimacy** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">With a clear and comfortable sense of who you are, said Erikson, you are ready to form emotionally close relationships. Such relationships are, for most of us, a source of great pleasure.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Parent and Peer Relationships: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As adolescents in Western cultures seek to form their own identities, they begin to pull away from their parents.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The transition occurs gradually. By adolescence, arguments occur more often, usually over mundane things; household chores, bedtime, homework <span class="apple-converted-space" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Parent-child conflict during the transition to adolescence tends to be greater with first-born than with second-born children.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For a minority of parents and their adolescents, differences lead to real splits and great stress.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">But most disagreements are at the level of harmless bickering.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Positive parent-teen relations and positive peer relations often go hand-in-hand.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">High school girls who have the most affectionate relationships with their mothers tend also to enjoy the most intimate friendships with girlfriends.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adolescence is typically a time of diminishing parental influence and growing peer influence.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Heredity does much of the heavy lifting in forming individual differences in temperament and personality, and parent and peer influences do much of the rest.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Most teens are herd animals. They talk, dress, and act more like their peers than their parents.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">What their friends are, they often become, and what “everybody’s doing,” they often do.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">“The social atmosphere in most high schools is poisonously clique-driven and exclusionary,” observed social psychologist Elliot Aronson (2001).
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Most excluded “students suffer in silence.…A small number act out in violent ways against their classmates.” Those who withdraw are vulnerable to loneliness, low self-esteem, and depression (Steinberg & Morris, 2001).
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Peer approval matters.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Teens see their parents as having more influence in other areas, i.e.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Religious faith, college, and career choices

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 16pt;">UNIT 9: KEY TERMS ** **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Zygote ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">After conception to 2 weeks, a human is a zygote || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Embryo ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A human embryo begins to develop distinct features at around 9 weeks || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fetus ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The human fetus has distinct features that separates it from other animals, such as a defined spinal development, etc. || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Teratogen ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">HIV virus, a mother’s heroin addiction || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fetal Alcohol Syndrome ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Can result from light drinking or persistent heavy drinking || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Habituation ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A baby’s sucking of his thumb || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Maturation ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A baby growing || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cognition ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Schema ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The concept of love || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Assimilation ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Interpreting something in our own terms || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Accommodation ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adjusting our schemas to incorporate information provided by new experiences || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sensorimotor Stage ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A baby’s stage from birth – 2 years old || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Object Permanence ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By 8 months, infants begin exhibiting memory for things no longer seen, such as hiding a toy. || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Preoperational Stage ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A baby’s stage from 2 – 6 or 7 years old || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Conservation ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A child being able to pour the same amount of liquid in two different sized containers || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Egocentrism ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">TV-watching preschoolers who block your view of the TV assume you see what they see || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Theory of Mind ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Chimpanzees’ seeming ability to read intentions || || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A child can mentally pour milk back and forth between glasses of different shapes || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Formal Operational Stage ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A child is able to solve hypothetical propositions and deducing consequences || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Autism ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others’ states of mind. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Autism is marked by communication deficiencies and repetitive behaviors || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stranger Anxiety ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A baby crying as a stranger approaches him || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Attachment ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A baby cries after being separated from his mother || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Critical Period ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development. || <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For goslings, ducklings, or chicks, that period falls in the hours shortly after hatching, when the first moving object they see is normally their mother. || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Imprinting ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Ducks following their mother around || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Temperament ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sensitive mothers and fathers tend to have securely attached infants || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Basic Trust ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">According to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Infants who have sensitive, loving caregivers form a lifelong attitude of trust rather than fear || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Self-concept ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?” || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Around age 12, most children develop an understanding of who they are || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Aggression ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Aggressive parents can breed aggressive children à <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> children can learn aggression from their parents/ environment || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">X Chromosome ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Two X chromosomes account for a female || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Y Chromosome ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One X chromosome and one Y chromosome result in a male || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Testosterone ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The external male sex organs develop as a result of a high amount of testosterone. || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender Role ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">a set of expected behaviors for males or for females || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A gender role could be women doing the dishes, while men mow the lawn. || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender Identity ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">our sense of being male or female. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Society’s regulations can have an impact on gender identity, in that males are supposed to act a certain way, whereas women act another way. || **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gender Typing ** || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role. || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Some boys, more than others exhibit traditionally masculine traits and interests and some girls more than others become distinctly feminine ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">TERM ** ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">DEFINITION **  ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">EXAMPLE/CCQ **  ||
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Concrete Operational Stage **
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">On pages 424-425, read the green inset section on Autism and “Mind-Blindness”. Write a summary of that reading here, then do some additional online research about Autism and add to those notes. **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Autism **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">, a disorder marked by communication deficiencies and repetitive behaviors, have been increasing. It was believed that the disorder affected 1 in 2500 children, but now, autism, or a related disorder will strike 1 in 150 American children, and 1 in 86 London children. Initially, some parents believed and filed against the U.S. government for mercury-related causes towards the prevalence of autism, but since 2001, the mercury has been removed, and the numbers still have not declined, but rather increased. We have some inclination that the source of autism’s symptoms seems to be poor communication among brain regions that normally allow people to take another’s perspective. People with autism are said to have an impaired theory of mind, having trouble inferring others’ thoughts and feelings. Biology also plays a role in autism of twins, in that, if one twin is diagnosed with autism, chances are 70% that the identical twin will have it as well. Biology also holds that if a non-autistic person sees another yawn, they too will yawn. This is not the case for autistic people—their mirror neurons are less active and as a result, they are less imitative. ||

**__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development __****<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Unit 9, pp. 417-426 ** **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sensorimotor Stage ** ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">0-2 years **  || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During this first stage, children learn entirely through the movements they make and the sensations that result. They learn: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Preoperational Stage ** ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">2-7 years **  || <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Once children acquire language, they are able to use symbols (such as words or pictures) to represent objects. Their thinking is still very egocentric though -- they assume that everyone else sees things from the same viewpoint as they do. <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">They are able to understand concepts like counting, classifying according to similarity, and past-present-future but generally they are still focused primarily on the present and on the concrete, rather than the abstract. ||  ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Concrete Operational Stage **  ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">7-11 years **  || <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">At this stage, children are able to see things from different points of view and to imagine events that occur outside their own lives. Some organized, logical thought processes are now evident and they are able to: <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">However, thinking still tends to be tied to concrete reality. ||  ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Formal Operational Stage **  ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">11+ years **  || <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Around the onset of puberty, children are able to reason in much more abstract ways and to test hypotheses using systematic logic. There is a much greater focus on possibilities and on ideological issues. ||  ||  **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages __****<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> Unit 9, pages 450-453 ** **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">(approx.) ** ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Principal Challenge/ ** **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Issue ** ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adequate Resolution **  ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Inadequate Resolution **  ||  **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">CCQs **  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">0 to 1 ½ years || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Trust vs. Mistrust  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Basic sense of safety, security; ability to rely on forces outside of oneself  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Insecurity, anxiety  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">I didn’t know they could differentiate this at such a young age, or even remember it. || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">1 ½ to 3 years || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Autonomy vs. shame and doubt  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Lack of independence, parents doing everything for the child  ||   || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">3 to 6 years || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Initiative vs. guilt  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent. || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Stifling of creativity ||   || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">6 years to puberty || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Industry vs. inferiority  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Lack of independence, restrictive parents  ||   || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Adolescence || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Identity vs. role confusion  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Not testing our different roles; inability to find “self” || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">What happens if an adolescent is unable to find a role, and unable to develop a single identity? Would the person then have split personalities? || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Early Adulthood || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Intimacy vs. isolation  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated. || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Loneliness, isolation, ostracism ||   || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Middle Adulthood || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Generativity vs. stagnation  || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Unemployment, loneliness, lack of family || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">What happens if a person is unable to find that sense of “contributing to the world”? Would they fall into a mid-life depression stage? || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Late Adulthood || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Integrity vs. despair || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Reflecting on his or her life, an older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure  ||  <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Lack of accomplishment à <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> inability to accomplish much at work, or start family   || <span style="display: block; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">Would lack of fulfillment in this stage result in elderly depression? ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">that they exist separately from the objects and people around them
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">that they can cause things to happen
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">that things continue to exist even when they can't see them || **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">CCQs and Examples: __** ||
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Order objects by size, color gradient, etc.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">understand that if 3 + 4 = 7 then 7 - 4 = 3
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">understand that a red square can belong to both the 'red' category and the 'square' category
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">understand that a short wide cup can hold the same amount of liquid as a tall thin cup
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Age/Period **

__** Notes: (p. 454-461): **__ **__<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Physical Changes in Later Life: __**
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Emerging Adulthood: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In young adulthood, emotional ties with parents loosen further.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During the early twenties, there is still heavy dependence on parents, but in the late twenties, people feel more independent and more apt to to viewing parents as fellow adults.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In Western world, adolescence corresponds to the teen years.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Shortly after sexual maturity, such societies bestowed adult responsibilities and status on the young person, often marking the event with an elaborate initiation, a public rite of passage, enabling the new adult to work, marry, and have children.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Today’s earlier sexual maturity is related both to increased body fat (which can support pregnancy and nursing) and to weakened parent-child bonds, including absent fathers.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Delayed independence and earlier sexual maturity have widened the once-brief interlude between biological maturity and social independence.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The time from 18 – mid 20’s = increasingly not-yet-settled phase of life, referred by some as emerging adulthood.
 * § **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Emerging adulthood **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adulthood: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">It is more difficult to generalize about adulthood stages than about life’s early years.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">We can occupy similar positions in life, despite the different ages in adulthood, yet physically, cognitively, and socially, we are different at age 50 than age 25.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Physical Development: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By the mid-twenties, our physical abilities; <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">muscular strength, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output all crest.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Usually begins with athletes, as well as women.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Women mature earlier than men.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Middle aged (post 40) athletes know of the physical deadline that gradually approaches.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">But diminished vigor is sufficient for normal activities
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Aging brings a gradual decline in fertility.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For a 35-to 39-year-old woman, the chances of getting pregnant after a single act of intercourse are only half those of a woman 19 to 26.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A woman’s foremost biological sign of aging, the onset of **menopause**, ends her menstrual cycles, usually within a few years of age 50.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Her expectations and attitudes will influence the emotional impact of this event.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Men experience no equivalent to menopause; no cessation of fertility, no sharp drop in sex hormones.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">They do experience a gradual decline in sperm count, testosterone level, and speed of erection and ejaculation.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Some may also experience distress related to their perception of declining virility and physical capacities.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Life Expectancy:
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Worldwide, life expectancy at birth increased from 49 years in 1950 to 67 in 2004—and to 80 and beyond in some developed countries.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This increasing life expectancy combines with decreasing birth rates to make older adults a bigger part of population segment, providing an increasing demand for things such as cruise ships.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">By 2050, about 35 percent of Europe’s population likely will be over age 60.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Countries that have depended on children to care for the aged are destined for a “demographic tsunami”.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Life expectancy differs for males and females; males are more prone to dying.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Although 126 male embryos begin life for every 100 females who do so, the sex ratio is down to 105 males for every 100 females at birth.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During the first year, male infants’ death rates exceed females’ by one-fourth. Women outlive men by 4 years worldwide and by 5 to 6 years in Canada, the United States, and Australia.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As the body ages, cells stop reproducing, the body becomes frail, vulnerable to tiny insults, such as hot weather, a fall, mild infection, etc.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">With age (especially when accentuated by smoking, obesity, or stress), people’s chromosome tips, called telomeres, wear down.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As these protective tips shorten, aging cells may die without being replaced with perfect genetic replicas.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Once we’ve fulfilled our gene-reproducing and nurturing task, there are no natural selection pressures against genes that cause degeneration in later life.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Human spirit also affects life expectancy
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Chronic anger and depression increase our risk of ill health and premature death.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Researchers have even observed an intriguing death-deferral phenomenon.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Mitsuru Shimizu and Brett Pelham (2008) report that, in one recent 15-year-period, 2000 to 3000 more Americans died on the two days after Christmas than on Christmas and the two days before.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Death rate increases when people reach their birthdays, as it did for those who survived to the milestone first day of the new millennium.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sensory Abilities: **
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Visual sharpness diminishes, and distance perception and adaptation to changes in light level are less acute.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina also diminish noticeably, as do vision, the sense of smell, and hearing.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In later life, the stairs get steeper, the print gets smaller, and other people seem to mumble more.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">With age, the eye’s pupil shrinks and its lens becomes less transparent, reducing the amount of light reaching the retina. In fact, a 65-year-old retina receives only about one-third as much light as its 20-year-old count.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Health: **
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For those growing older, the body’s disease-fighting immune system weakens, making older people more susceptible to life-threatening ailments such as cancer and pneumonia.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Good news: Thanks partly to a lifetime’s accumulation of antibodies; those over 65 suffer fewer short-term ailments, such as common flu and cold viruses.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Aging levies a tax on the brain by slowing our neural processing.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Up to the teen years, we process information with greater and greater speed, but compared to you, older people take a bit more time to react, to solve perceptual puzzles, even to remember names.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Brain regions important to memory begin to atrophy during aging
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In young adulthood, a small, gradual net loss of brain cells begins, contributing by age 80 to a brain-weight reduction of 5 percent or so.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Physical exercise stimulates brain cell development and neural connections, thanks perhaps to increased oxygen and nutrient flow.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">That may explain why active older adults tend to be mentally quick older adults, and why, across 20 studies, sedentary older adults randomly assigned to aerobic exercise programs have exhibited enhanced memory and sharpened judgment.
 * **<span style="color: #68033b; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Dementia and Alzheimer’s Disease: **
 * o <span style="color: #68033b; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Some adults suffer a substantial loss of brain cells.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Up to age 95, the incidence of mental disintegration doubles roughly every 5 years.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">A series of small strokes, a brain tumor, or alcohol dependence can progressively damage the brain; causing that mental erosion we call **dementia**.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Alzheimer’s disease, which strikes 3% of the world’s population by age 75, is another brain ailment.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">First memory deteriorates, then reasoning.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Underlying the symptoms of Alzheimer’s is a loss of brain cells and deterioration of neurons that produce the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Deprived of this vital chemical messenger, memory and thinking suffer.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">An autopsy revealed: abnormalities in these acetylcholine-producing neurons: shriveled protein filaments in the cell body, and plaques (globs of degenerating tissue) at the tips of neuron branches.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Researchers are gaining insights into the chemical, neural, and genetic roots of Alzheimer’s.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Physically active, non-obese people are less at risk for Alzheimer’s
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Those with an active, challenged mind, often the mind of an educated, active reader, are less susceptible to Alzheimer’s.

__** Notes: (p. 441-449) **__
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Parents and Peers: __**
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Parents and Early Experiences: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Nature and nurture takes form in development in the prenatal environment in the womb, and outside the womb. In the womb, embryos receive differing nutrition and varying levels of exposure to toxic agents. Outside the womb, experiences foster brain development.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Experience and Brain Development: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Our genes dictate our overall brain architecture, but experience fills in the details, developing neural connections and preparing our brain for thought and language and other later experiences.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Mark Rosenzweig and David Krech raised some young rats in solitary confinement and others in a communal playground. They saw that the ones with the most toys had the most “marks” in the brain because they lived in an enriched environment, which simulated natural environment and helped develop a heavier and thicker brain cortex.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stimulation by touch or massage also benefits rats and premature babies.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Both nature and nurture sculpt our synapses.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">After brain maturation provides us with an abundance of neural connections, our experiences trigger a pruning process.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Sights and smells, touches and tugs activate connections and strengthen them. Unused neural pathways weaken and degenerate.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The pre-adolescent years are the peak years for mastering skills, such as grammar and accent of another language.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Also, lacking visual experience during the early years, people whose vision is restored by cataract removal never achieve normal perceptions.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">These brain cells attributed to vision have already died.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The brain’s development does not end with childhood.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Because of brain plasticity, our neural tissue is ever changing.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">How Much Credit (or Blame) Do Parents Deserve? __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Society reinforces such parent-blaming: Believing that parents shape their offspring as a potter molds clay, people readily praise parents for their children’s virtues and blame them for their children’s vices.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Popular culture endlessly proclaims the psychological harm toxic parents inflict on their fragile children.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Parents do matter. The power of parenting to shape our differences is clearest at the extremes;
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the abused who become abusive, the neglected who become neglectful, the loved but firmly handled children who become self-confident and socially competent.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The power of the family environment also frequently shows up in children’s political attitudes, religious beliefs, and personal manners.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Appears in academic and vocational successes of the refugee “boat people” fleeing Vietnam and Cambodia.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">“Two children in the same family [are on average] as different from one another as are pairs of children selected randomly from the population. ”
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To developmental psychologist Sandra Scarr (1993), this implies that “parents should be given less credit for kids who turn out great and blamed less for kids who don’t.”
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Peer Influence: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As children mature, esp. during childhood and adolescence, they seek to fit in with groups and are subject to group influences.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Power of peers is exhibited through:
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Preschoolers who disdain a certain food often will eat that food if put at a table with a group of children who like it.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Children who hear English spoken with one accent at home and another in the neighborhood and at school will invariably adopt the accent of their peers, not their parents. Accents (and slang) reflect culture, “and children get their culture from their peers,” notes Harris (2007)
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Teens who start smoking typically have friends who model smoking, suggest its pleasures, and offer cigarettes
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Part of this peer similarity may result from a **selection effect**, as kids seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests. Those who smoke (or don’t) may select as friends those who also smoke (or don’t).
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Howard Gardner (1998) : Parents are more important when it comes to education, discipline, responsibility, orderliness, charitableness, and ways of interacting with authority figures.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Peers are more important for learning cooperation, for finding the road to popularity, for inventing styles of interaction among people of the same age.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adolescence: __**
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adolescence **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">, the years spent morphing from child to adult, starts with the physical beginnings of sexual maturity and ends with the social achievement of independent adult status.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">G. Stanley Hall(1904) described the tension between biological maturity and social dependence creates a period of “storm and stress”.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">After age 30, many who grow up in independence-fostering Western cultures look back on their teenage years as a time they would not want to relive, a time when their peers’ social approval was imperative, their sense of direction in life was in flux, and their feeling of alienation from their parents was deepest.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For many, adolescence is a time of vitality without the cares of adulthood, a time of rewarding friendships, of heightened idealism and a growing sense of life’s exciting possibilities.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Physical Development: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adolescence begins with **puberty**, the time when we mature sexually.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Puberty follows a surge of hormones, which may intensify moods and which trigger a two-year period of rapid physical development, usually beginning at about age 11 in girls and at about age 13 in boys.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">About the time of puberty, boys’ growth propels them to greater height than their female counterparts.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During this growth spurt, the **primary sex characteristics**; the reproductive organs and external genitalia, develop dramatically.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Secondary sex characteristics **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">, the non-reproductive traits such as breasts and hips in girls, facial hair and deepened voice in boys, pubic and underarm hair in both sexes also develop.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In girls, puberty starts with breast development, which now often begins by age 10.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">But puberty’s landmarks are the first ejaculation in boys, usually by about age 14, and the first menstrual period in girls, usually within a year of age 12 and a half.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The first menstrual period, called **menarche**, is a memorable event. Adult women remember experiencing a mixture of feelings: pride, excitement, embarrassment, and apprehension.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adolescent brains are also works in progress.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Until puberty, brain cells increase their connections, like trees growing more roots and branches.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Then, during adolescence, comes a selective pruning of unused neurons and connections.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As teens mature, their frontal lobes also continue to develop.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The growth of myelin, the fatty tissue that forms around axons and speeds neurotransmission, enables better communication with other brain regions.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Frontal lobe maturation lags the emotional limbic system.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Puberty’s hormonal surge and limbic system development help explain teens’ occasional impulsiveness, risky behaviors, emotional storms.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Teens actually don’t underestimate the risks of smoking—or driving fast or unprotected sex—they just, when reasoning from their gut, weigh the benefits more heavily.


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cognitive Development: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As young teenagers become capable of thinking about their thinking, and of thinking about other people’s thinking, they begin imagining what other people are thinking about them.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As their cognitive abilities mature, many begin to think about what is ideally possible and compare that with the imperfect reality of their society, their parents, and even themselves.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Developing Reasoning Power: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During the early teen years, reasoning is often self-focused.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adolescents may think their private experiences are unique, something parents just could not understand, like love.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Gradually, though, most achieve the intellectual summit Piaget called **formal operations**, and they become more capable of abstract reasoning.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adolescents ponder and debate human nature, good and evil, truth and justice.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The ability to reason hypothetically and deduce consequences also enables them to detect inconsistencies in others’ reasoning and to spot hypocrisy.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This can lead to heated debates with parents and silent vows never to lose sight of their own ideals.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Developing Morality: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Two crucial tasks of childhood and adolescence are differentiating right from wrong and developing character; the psychological muscles for controlling impulses.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Much of our morality is rooted in gut-level reactions, for which the mind seeks rationalization.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Often, reason justifies passions such as disgust or liking.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Piaget (1932) believed that children’s moral judgments build on their cognitive development.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Agreeing with Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg (1981,1984) sought to describe the development of **moral reasoning**, the thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Found that as we develop intellectually, we pass through three basic levels of moral thinking:
 * o **Preconventional morality** Before age 9, most children’s morality focuses on self-interest: They obey rules either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Moral Feeling: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The mind makes moral judgments as it makes aesthetic judgments, quickly and automatically.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">We feel disgust when seeing people engaged in degrading or subhuman acts, and we feel elevation—a tingly, warm, glowing feeling in the chest—when seeing people display exceptional generosity, compassion, or courage.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The gut feelings that drive our moral judgments turn out to be widely shared.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To neuroscientist Marc Hauser (2006) this suggests that humans are hard-wired for moral feelings.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Faced with moral choices, people across the world, with similar evolved brains, display similar moral intuitions.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Moral Action: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Morality involves doing the right thing, and what we do also depends on social influences.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As our thinking matures, our behavior also becomes less selfish and more caring.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Education programs therefore tend to focus both on moral issues and on doing the right thing.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">They teach children empathy for others’ feelings, and also the self-discipline needed to restrain one’s own impulses—to delay small gratifications now to enable bigger rewards later.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Education programs therefore tend to focus both on moral issues and on doing the right thing.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">They teach children empathy for others’ feelings, and also the self-discipline needed to restrain one’s own impulses—to delay small gratifications now to enable bigger rewards later.


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 18pt;">Notes: (p. 461- 467): **
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Cognitive Development: __**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">One of the most interesting developmental psychology questions is whether adult cognitive abilities deteriorate with age, as physical abilities do.
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Aging and Memory: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As we age, we remember some things well.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Looking back in later life, people asked to recall the one or two most important events over the last half-century tend to name events from their teens or twenties.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Teens and twenties are a time of many memorable events; first kisses, first job, etc.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Early adulthood is indeed a peak time for some types of learning and remembering.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Thomas Crook and Robin West (1990) invited 1205 people to learn some names.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fourteen videotaped people said their names, using a common format: “Hi, I’m Larry.” Then the same individuals reappeared and said, for example, “I’m from Philadelphia”, thus providing visual and voice cues for remembering their name.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Everyone remembered more names after a second and third replay of the introductions, but younger adults consistently surpassed older adults.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Prospective memory **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (“Remember to . . .”) remains strong when events help trigger memories, as when walking by a convenience store triggers a “Pick up milk!” memory.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Time-based tasks **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> (“Remember the 3:00 <span class="smallcap" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">P.M. <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">meeting”) prove somewhat more challenging for older people.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Habitual tasks, such as remembering to take medications three times daily, can be especially challenging
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To minimize problems associated with declining prospective memory, older adults rely more on time management and on using reminder cues, such as notes to themselves.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Younger adults differ in their abilities to learn and remember, but 70-year-olds differ much more.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">No matter how quick or slow we are, remembering seems also to depend on the type of information we are trying to retrieve.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> If the information is meaningless—nonsense syllables or unimportant events, then the older we are, the more errors we are likely to make.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">If the information is meaningful, older people’s rich web of existing knowledge will help them to catch it, though they may take longer than younger adults to produce the words and things they know.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Older people’s capacity to learn and remember //skills// also declines less than their verbal recall.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adulthood’s Ages and Stages:
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Aging and Intelligence: __**
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Phase I: Cross-Sectional Evidence for Intellectual Decline ** **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In cross-sectional studies **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">, researchers at one point in time test and compare people of various ages.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When giving intelligence tests to representative samples of people, researchers consistently find that older adults give fewer correct answers than do younger adults.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">D avid Wechsler (1972), creator of the most widely used adult intelligence test, therefore concluded that “the decline of mental ability with age is part of the general [aging] process of the organism as a whole.”
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Phase II: Longitudinal Evidence for Intellectual Stability: ** <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">After colleges began giving intelligence tests to entering students about 1920, several psychologists saw their chance to study intelligence **longitudinally**: retesting the same people over a period of years.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Until late in life, intelligence remained stable . On some tests, it even increased.
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Phase III: It All Depends: ** <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Those who survive to the end of longitudinal studies may be bright, healthy people whose intelligence is least likely to decline. (Perhaps people who died younger and were removed from the study had declining intelligence.)
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Research is further complicated by the finding that intelligence is not a single trait, but rather several distinct abilities.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Intelligence tests that assess speed of thinking may place older adults at a disadvantage because of their slower neural mechanisms for processing information.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Slower processing is not less intelligent; when given tests that assess general vocabulary, knowledge, and ability to integrate information, older adults generally fare well.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">German researcher Paul Baltes and his colleagues (1993, 1994, 1999) developed “wisdom” tests that assess “expert knowledge about life in general and good judgment and advice about how to conduct oneself in the face of complex, uncertain circumstances.”
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">suggest that older adults more than hold their own on these tests
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Crystallized intelligence: **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Fluid intelligenc ****<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">e **<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Despite age-related cognitive changes, studies in several countries indicate that age is only a modest predictor of abilities such as memory and intelligence.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Mental ability more strongly correlates with proximity to death.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In the last three or four years of life, cognitive decline typically accelerates, a near-death crop that researchers refer to as **terminal decline.**
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Social Development: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Many differences between younger and older adults are created by significant life events.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As people enter their forties, they undergo a transition to middle adulthood,a time when they realize that life will soon be mostly behind instead of ahead of them.
 * o **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Midlife transition **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;"> is a crisis, a time of great struggle, regret, or even feeling struck down by life.
 * o <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Large samples of people report that <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">unhappiness, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">job dissatisfaction, marital dissatisfaction, divorce, anxiety, and suicide do not surge during the early forties
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Divorce surfaces around twenties, and suicide, seventies and eighties.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Life events trigger transitions to new life stages at varying ages.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Social clock: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. – varies from culture to culture and era to era
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Even **chance events** can have lasting significance because they often deflect us down one road rather than another.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Romantic attraction, for example, is often influenced by chance encounters.

__** Notes: (p. 467 - 477) : **__
 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adulthood’s Commitments: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Two basic aspects of our lives dominate adulthood. Erik Erikson called them **intimacy** (forming close relationships) and **generativity** (being productive and supporting future generations).
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Love **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: We typically flirt, fall in love, and commit, one person at a time.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Adult bonds of love are most satisfying and enduring when marked by a similarity of interests and values, a sharing of emotional and material support, and intimate self-disclosure.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Couples who seal their love with commitment, i.e. marriages for heterosexual couples, more often endure.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Compared with their counterparts of 40 years ago, people in Western countries are better educated and marrying later, but are nearly twice as likely to divorce.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Two factors help explain why American children born to cohabiting parents are about five times more likely to experience their parents’ separation than are children born to married parents :
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">First, cohabiters tend to be initially less committed to the ideal of enduring marriage.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Second, they become even less marriage-supporting while cohabiting.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The institution of marriage endures; 9 in 10 heterosexual adults marry according to worldwide reports from the United Nations.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Marriages that last are not always devoid of conflict.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Some couples fight but also shower one another with affection.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Other couples never raise their voices yet also seldom praise one another or nuzzle.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Both styles can last.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">After observing the interactions of 2000 couples, John Gottman (1994) reported one indicator of marital success: at least a five-to-one ratio of positive to negative interactions.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Stable marriages provide five times more instances of smiling, touching, complimenting, and laughing than of sarcasm, criticism, and insults.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Often, love bears children.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When children begin to absorb time, money, and emotional energy, satisfaction with the marriage itself may decline.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Happens more with employed women who carry the traditional burden of doing chores at home.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Although love bears children, children eventually leave home.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This departure is a significant and sometimes difficult event.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">For many, this empty nest is a happy place.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">As Daniel Gilbert (2006) has said, “The only known symptom of ‘empty nest syndrome’ is increased smiling.”
 * **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Work **<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">: For women and men, choosing a career path is difficult, especially in today’s changing work environment.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">During the first two years of college or university, few students can predict their later careers; Most shift from their initially intended majors, many find their post-college employment in fields not directly related to their majors, and most will change careers
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In the end, happiness is about having work that fits your interests and provides you with a sense of competence and accomplishment. It is having a close, supportive companion who cheers your accomplishments.


 * __<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Well-being and Life-Span: __**
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">To live is to grow older.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">This moment is the point where you are the oldest you have ever been and the youngest you will henceforth be.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">we all can look back with satisfaction or regret, and forward with hope or dread.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">When asked what they would have done differently if they could relive their lives, people’s most common answer is “Taken my education more seriously and worked harder at it”
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">From the teens to midlife, people typically experience a strengthening sense of identity, confidence, and self-esteem.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">In later life, challenges arise: Income shrinks, work is often taken away, the body deteriorates, recall fades, energy wanes, family members and friends die or move away, and the great enemy, death, looms ever closer.
 * o <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">The over-65 years are not notably unhappy, as Ronald Inglehart (1990) discovered when he amassed interviews conducted during the 1980s with representative samples of nearly 170,000 people in 16 nations.
 * § <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Newer surveys of some 2 million people worldwide confirm that happiness is slightly higher among both young and older adults than among those middle-aged.
 * <span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Positive feelings grow after midlife and negative feelings subside :
 * o Older adults increasingly use words that convey positive emotions.
 * At all ages, the bad feelings we associate with negative events fade faster than do the good feelings we associate with positive events.
 * Although life satisfaction does not decline with age, it often wanes in the terminal decline phase, as death approaches.
 * o As years go by, feelings mellow highs become less high, lows become less low.
 * § We are thus, less often depressed, and our average feeling level tends to remain the same.
 * o Psychologists Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Reed Larson (1984) mapped people’s emotional terrain by periodically signaling them with electronic beepers to report their current activities and feelings.
 * § Teenagers typically come down from elation or up from gloom in less than an hour.
 * § Adult moods are less extreme but more enduring.
 * For most people, old age offers less intense joy but greater contentment and increased spirituality, especially for those who remain socially engaged.
 * __Death and Dying:__**
 * Most of us will suffer and cope with the deaths of relatives and friends.
 * o Usually, the most difficult separation is from a spouse, a loss suffered by five times more women than men.
 * § When, as usually happens, death comes at an expected late-life time, the grieving may be relatively short-lived.
 * o Grief is especially severe when the death of a loved one comes suddenly and before its expected time on the social clock.
 * § i.e. illness of a 45-year-old life partner or the accidental death of a child may trigger a year or more of memory-laden mourning that eventually subsides to a mild depression
 * o For some, however, the loss is unbearable.
 * § One study, following more than 1 million Danes over the last half of the twentieth century, found that more than 17,000 people had suffered the death of a child under 18.
 * In the five years following that death, 3 percent of them had a first psychiatric hospitalization.
 * The normal range of reactions to a loved one’s death is wider than most suppose.
 * o Some cultures encourage public weeping and wailing; others hide grief. Within any culture, individuals differ.
 * § terminally ill and bereaved people do not go through identical predictable stages, such as denial before anger. A Yale study following 233 bereaved individuals through time did, however, find that yearning for the loved one reached a high point four months after the loss, with anger peaking, on average, about a month later
 * § those who express the strongest grief immediately do not purge their grief more quickly
 * § bereavement therapy and self-help groups offer support, but there is similar healing power in the passing of time and the support of friends, and also in giving support and help to others
 * Grieving spouses who talk often with others or who receive grief counseling adjust about as well as those who grieve more privately
 * Erik Erikson called the feeling that one’s life has been meaningful and worthwhile, a sense of **integrity.**
 * __ Reflections on Three Major Developmental Issues: __**
 * **__Nature and Nurture__:** Studies of the inheritance of temperament, and of twins and adopted children, confirm that nature and nurture influence development.
 * o Gene and environment, biological and social factors direct our life courses, and their effects intertwine.
 * **__ Continuity and Stages __** : Generally, researchers who emphasize experience and learning see development as a slow, continuous shaping process.
 * o Those who emphasize biological maturation tend to see development as a sequence of genetically predisposed stages or steps: Although progress through the various stages may be quick or slow, everyone passes through the stages in the same order.
 * § Young children have some abilities Piaget attributed to later stages.
 * § Kohlberg’s work reflected a worldview characteristic of educated people in individualistic cultures and emphasized thinking over acting.
 * § Adult life does not progress through the fixed, predictable series of steps Erikson envisioned.
 * o Although research casts doubt on the idea that life proceeds through neatly defined, age-linked stages, the stage concept remains useful.
 * § The human brain does experience growth spurts during childhood and puberty that correspond roughly to Piaget’s stages
 * Stage theories contribute a developmental perspective on the whole life span, by suggesting how people of one age think and act differently when they arrive at a later age.
 * Stability and Change: Researchers who have followed lives through time have found evidence for both stability and change.
 * o There is continuity to personality and yet, happily for troubled children and adolescents, life is a process of becoming: The struggles of the present may be laying a foundation for a happier tomorrow.
 * § The first two years of life provide a poor basis for predicting a person’s eventual traits . Older children and adolescents also change. Although delinquent children have elevated rates of later work problems, substance abuse, and crime, many confused and troubled children have blossomed into mature, successful adults.
 * § As people grow older, personality gradually stabilizes . Some characteristics, such as temperament, are more stable than others, such as social attitudes
 * § In some ways, we all change with age.
 * Most shy, fearful toddlers begin opening up by age 4, and most people become more self-disciplined, stable, agreeable, and self-confident in the years after adolescence.
 * Many irresponsible 18-year-olds have matured into 40-year-old business or cultural leaders.
 * § In some ways, we all change with age.
 * Most shy, fearful toddlers begin opening up by age 4, and most people become more self-disciplined, stable, agreeable, and self-confident in the years after adolescence.
 * Many irresponsible 18-year-olds have matured into 40-year-old business or cultural leaders.